States of Impunity: Bhutanese Refugee Camps in Nepal

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State Crime Journal

Volume 6, Issue 1

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States of Impunity: Bhutanese Refugee Camps in Nepal

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Author(s): Alice M Neikirk ¹ , Ray Nickson ²

Publication date (Print): 1 April 2017

Journal: State Crime Journal

Publisher: Pluto Journals

Keywords: corruption, humanitarianism, ethnic cleansing, citizenship, Lhotshampa

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Abstract

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Author and article information

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Journal ID (doi): 10.13169

Journal ID (publisher-id): statecrime

Title: State Crime Journal

Publisher: Pluto Journals

ISSN (Print): 20466056

ISSN (Electronic): 20466064

Publication date (Print): 1 April 2017

Volume: 6

Issue: 1

Pages: 37-54

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[1 ] The Australian National University

[2 ] Fresno Pacific University

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Publisher ID: statecrime.6.1.0037

DOI: 10.13169/statecrime.6.1.0037

SO-VID: c1b36859-1c1c-4518-ac60-c828237055d0

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History

References

Agamben, G. ( 2005) State of exception . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Agier, M. ( 2011). Managing the undesirables . Cambridge: Polity Press.
Amnesty International ( 1992a) Bhutan: Human Rights Violations against the Nepali-Speaking Population in the South . ASA 14/04/92. London: Amnesty International.
Amnesty International ( 1992b) “First AI Visit to Bhutan”, Amnesty International Newsletter XXII( 4): 1.
Aris, M. ( 1994) “Introduction”, in M. Aris and M. Hutt, eds. Bhutan: Aspects of Culture and Development . Gartmore: Kiscadale Publications.
Banki, S. ( 2008) Bhutanese Refugees in Nepal: Anticipating the Impact of Resettlement . Canberra: Australian Research Council, Australian National University.
Barnett, M. ( 2001) “Humanitarianism with a Sovereign Face: UNHCR in the Global Undertow”, International Migration Review 35( 1): 244– 277.
Barnett, M. ( 2005) “Humanitarianism Transformed”, Perspective on Politics 4: 723– 740.
Betts, A. ( 2013a) “Regime Complexity and International Organizations: UNHCR as a Challenged Institution”, Global Governance: A Review of Multilateralism and International Organizations 19( 1): 69– 81.
Betts, A. ( 2013b) Survival Migration: Failed Governance and the Crisis of Displacement . Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Birendra, K.C. and Nagata, S. ( 2006) “Refugee Impact on Collective Management of Forest Resources: A Case Study of Bhutanese Refugees in Nepal's Eastern Terai Region”, Journal of Forest Research , 11( 5): 305– 311.
Bradley, M. and Duthie, R. ( 2014) “Introduction: Accountability and Redress for the Injustices of Displacement”, Journal of Refugee Studies 27( 2): 161– 170.
Brown, T. ( 2001) “Improving Quality and Attainment in Refugee Schools: The Case of the Bhutanese Refugees in Nepal”, in J. Cript, C. Talbot, D. Cipollone and B. Daiana, eds, Learning for a Future: Refugee Education in Developing Countries . Geneva: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
Cassese, A. ( 1998) “On the Current Trends towards Criminal Prosecution and Punishment of Breaches of International Humanitarian Law”, European Journal of International Law 9( 1): 2– 17.
Chambliss, W.J. ( 1989) “State-Organized Crime: The American Society of Criminology, 1988 Presidential Address”, Criminology 27( 2): 183– 208.
Collins, V.E. ( 2014) “Vicitmizing the Undocumented: Immigration Policy and Border Enforcement as State Crime”, in D.L. Rothe and D. Kauzlarich, eds., Towards a Victimology of State Crime . New York: Routledge.
Crisp, J. ( 2001) “Mind the Gap! UNHCR, Humanitarian Assistance and the Development Process”, International Migration Review 35( 1): 168– 191.
Cunneen, C. ( 2008) “State Crime, the Colonial Question and Indigenous Peoples”, in A. Smeulers and R. Haveman, eds., Supranational Criminology: Towards a Criminology of International Crimes . Antwerp: Intersentia.
Department of Immigration and Border Protection ( 2014) Settler by country of birth (Settlement by state) . Canberra: The Australian Government.
Duffield, M. ( 2007) Development, Security and Unending War: Governing the World of Peoples . Cambridge: Polity Press.
Duffield, M. ( 2010) “The Liberal War of Development and the Development-Security Impasse: Exploring the Global Life-Chance Divide”, Security Dialogue 41( 1): 53– 76.
Evans, R. ( 2010) “The Perils of Being a Borderland People: On the Lhotshampas of Bhutan”, Contemporary South Asia 18( 1): 25– 42.
Feldman, I. ( 2009) “Gaza's Humanitarianism Problem”, Journal of Palestine Studies 38( 3): 22– 37.
Friedrichs, D.O. ( 2000) “State Crime or Governmental Crime: Making Sense of the Conceptual Confusion”, in J.I. Ross, ed. Controlling State Crime . New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.
Friedrichs, D.O. ( 2015) “Rethinking The Criminology of Crimes of States: Monumental, Mundane, Mislabeled and Miscalculated Crimes”, International Journal of Crime, Justice and Social Democracy 4( 4): 106– 119.
Gardiner, J. ( 2002) “Defining Corruption”, in A.J. Heidenheimer and M. Johnston, eds., Political Corruption: Concepts and Contexts . New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.
Gilroy, P. ( 1990) “Nationalism, History and Ethnic Absolutism”, History Workshop 30( 1): 114– 120.
Green, P.J. and Ward, T. ( 2000) “State Crime, Human Rights, and the Limits of Criminology”, Social Justice 27( 1): 101– 115.
Harrell-Bond, B. ( 1986) Imposing Aid: Emergency Assistance to Refugees . Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Human Rights Watch ( 2003) Bhutan/Nepal: Trapped by Inequality: Bhutanese Refugee Women in Nepal . Report. New York: Human Rights Watch.
Hutt, M. ( 2003) Unbecoming Citizens: Culture, Nationhood, and the Flight of Refugees from Bhutan . New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Hutt, M. ( 2005) “The Bhutanese Refugees: Between Verification, Repatriation and Royal Realpolitik”, Peace and Democracy in South Asia 1( 1): 44– 56.
Kauzlarich, D., Matthews, R.A. and Miller, W.J. ( 2001) “Toward a Victimology of State Crime”, Critical Criminology 10( 3): 173– 194.
Kritz, N.J. ( 1996) “Coming to Terms with Atrocities: A Review of Accountability Mechanisms for Mass Violations of Human Rights”, Law and Contemporary Problems 59( 4): 127– 152.
Kymlicka, W. ( 1995) Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights . Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lee, T.L. ( 1998) “Refugees from Bhutan: Nationality, Statelessness and the Right to Return”, International Journal of Refugee Law 10( 1/2): 118– 155.
Laczo, M. ( 2003) “Deprived of an Individual Identity: Citizenship and Women in Nepal”, Gender & Development 11( 3): 76– 82.
Loescher, G., Betts, A. and Milner, J. ( 2008) The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR): The Politics and Practice of Refugee Protection into the 21st Century . New York: Routledge.
Malkki, L. ( 1995) Purity in Exile . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Menzies, K. ( 2000) “State Crime by the Police and its Control”, in J.I. Ross ed., Controlling State Crime . New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.
Muggah, R. ( 2005) “Distinguishing Means and Ends: The Counterintuitive Effects of UNHCR's Community Development Approach in Nepal”, Journal of Refugee Studies 18( 2): 151– 164.
O'Brien, M. ( 2010) “Fears of ‘Demographic Inundation’ Behind Bhutan's Refugee Crisis”, East Bay Times , 28 August. Available online at http://www.eastbaytimes.com/san-leandro/ci_15906108?source=pkg (accessed 9 August 2016).
Ong, A. ( 1999) Flexible Citizenship: The Cultural Logics of Transnationality . Durham: Duke University Press.
Orrù, E. and Ronzoni, M. ( 2011) “Which Supranational Sovereignty? Criminal and Socioeconomic Justice Compared”, Review of International Studies 37( 5): 2089– 2106.
Pickering, S. ( 2005). Refugees and state crime . Sydney: Federation Press.
Reilly, R. ( 1994) “Life and Work in the Refugee Camps in Southeast Nepal”, in M. Hutt, ed., Perspectives on Conflict and Dissent . Gartmore: Kiscadale Press.
Rose, L.E ( 1977) The Politics of Bhutan . Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Ross, J.I. ( 1995) “Controlling State Crime: An Introduction”, Journal of Criminal Justice 23( 5): 493– 495.
Ross, J.I. ( 2011) “Reinventing Controlling State Crime and Varieties of State Crime and Its Control: What I Would Have Done Differently”, in D.L. Rothe and C.W. Mullins, eds, State Crime: Current Perspectives . New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Rothe, D.L. ( 2009) State Criminality: The Crime of all Crimes . Plymouth: Lexington Books.
Saul, B. ( 2000) “Cultural Nationalism, Self-determination and Human Rights in Bhutan”, International Journal of Refugee Law 12( 3): 321– 353.
Schoultz, I. ( 2014) “European Court of Human Rights: Accountability to Whom?” in D.L. Rothe and D. Kauzlarich, eds., Towards a Victimology of State Crime . New York: Routledge.
Sharkansky, I. ( 1995) “A State Action May Be Nasty but Is Not Likely to Be a Crime”, in J.I. Ross, ed., Controlling State Crime: An Introduction . New York: Garland.
Spiro, P.J. ( 2011) “A New International Law of Citizenship”, American Journal of International Law 105( 4): 694– 746.
Thinley, J.Y. ( 1994) “A Kingdom Besieged”, in M. Hutt ed., Bhutan: Perspectives on Conflict and Dissent . Gartmore: Kiscadale Publications.
Transparency International ( 2015) “Corruption Perceptions Index 2015”, Transparency International . Available online at http://www.transparency.org/cpi2015 (accessed 8 August 2016).
Transparency International ( 2016) “Frequently Asked Questions on Corruption”, Transparency International . Available online at http://www.transparency.org/whoweare/organisation/faqs_on_corruption (accessed 23 February 2016).
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) ( 2008) A Community-Based Approach in UNHCR Operations . Geneva: Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ( 2013) Global Appeal . Geneva: Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
Weber, M. ( 2004) “Politics as a Vocation”, in R. Livingstone, trans., D. Owen and T. Strong, eds, The Vocation Lectures . Chicago: Hackett Books.

Comments

Comment on this article

[1] Agamben, G. ( 2005) State of exception . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

[2] Agier, M. ( 2011). Managing the undesirables . Cambridge: Polity Press.

[3] Amnesty International ( 1992a) Bhutan: Human Rights Violations against the Nepali-Speaking Population in the South . ASA 14/04/92. London: Amnesty International.

[4] Amnesty International ( 1992b) “First AI Visit to Bhutan”, Amnesty International Newsletter XXII( 4): 1.

[5] Aris, M. ( 1994) “Introduction”, in M. Aris and M. Hutt, eds. Bhutan: Aspects of Culture and Development . Gartmore: Kiscadale Publications.

[6] Banki, S. ( 2008) Bhutanese Refugees in Nepal: Anticipating the Impact of Resettlement . Canberra: Australian Research Council, Australian National University.

[7] Barnett, M. ( 2001) “Humanitarianism with a Sovereign Face: UNHCR in the Global Undertow”, International Migration Review 35( 1): 244– 277.

[8] Barnett, M. ( 2005) “Humanitarianism Transformed”, Perspective on Politics 4: 723– 740.

[9] Betts, A. ( 2013a) “Regime Complexity and International Organizations: UNHCR as a Challenged Institution”, Global Governance: A Review of Multilateralism and International Organizations 19( 1): 69– 81.

[10] Betts, A. ( 2013b) Survival Migration: Failed Governance and the Crisis of Displacement . Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

[11] Birendra, K.C. and Nagata, S. ( 2006) “Refugee Impact on Collective Management of Forest Resources: A Case Study of Bhutanese Refugees in Nepal's Eastern Terai Region”, Journal of Forest Research , 11( 5): 305– 311.

[12] Bradley, M. and Duthie, R. ( 2014) “Introduction: Accountability and Redress for the Injustices of Displacement”, Journal of Refugee Studies 27( 2): 161– 170.

[13] Brown, T. ( 2001) “Improving Quality and Attainment in Refugee Schools: The Case of the Bhutanese Refugees in Nepal”, in J. Cript, C. Talbot, D. Cipollone and B. Daiana, eds, Learning for a Future: Refugee Education in Developing Countries . Geneva: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.

[14] Cassese, A. ( 1998) “On the Current Trends towards Criminal Prosecution and Punishment of Breaches of International Humanitarian Law”, European Journal of International Law 9( 1): 2– 17.

[15] Chambliss, W.J. ( 1989) “State-Organized Crime: The American Society of Criminology, 1988 Presidential Address”, Criminology 27( 2): 183– 208.

[16] Collins, V.E. ( 2014) “Vicitmizing the Undocumented: Immigration Policy and Border Enforcement as State Crime”, in D.L. Rothe and D. Kauzlarich, eds., Towards a Victimology of State Crime . New York: Routledge.

[17] Crisp, J. ( 2001) “Mind the Gap! UNHCR, Humanitarian Assistance and the Development Process”, International Migration Review 35( 1): 168– 191.

[18] Cunneen, C. ( 2008) “State Crime, the Colonial Question and Indigenous Peoples”, in A. Smeulers and R. Haveman, eds., Supranational Criminology: Towards a Criminology of International Crimes . Antwerp: Intersentia.

[19] Department of Immigration and Border Protection ( 2014) Settler by country of birth (Settlement by state) . Canberra: The Australian Government.

[20] Duffield, M. ( 2007) Development, Security and Unending War: Governing the World of Peoples . Cambridge: Polity Press.

[21] Duffield, M. ( 2010) “The Liberal War of Development and the Development-Security Impasse: Exploring the Global Life-Chance Divide”, Security Dialogue 41( 1): 53– 76.

[22] Evans, R. ( 2010) “The Perils of Being a Borderland People: On the Lhotshampas of Bhutan”, Contemporary South Asia 18( 1): 25– 42.

[23] Feldman, I. ( 2009) “Gaza's Humanitarianism Problem”, Journal of Palestine Studies 38( 3): 22– 37.

[24] Friedrichs, D.O. ( 2000) “State Crime or Governmental Crime: Making Sense of the Conceptual Confusion”, in J.I. Ross, ed. Controlling State Crime . New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.

[25] Friedrichs, D.O. ( 2015) “Rethinking The Criminology of Crimes of States: Monumental, Mundane, Mislabeled and Miscalculated Crimes”, International Journal of Crime, Justice and Social Democracy 4( 4): 106– 119.

[26] Gardiner, J. ( 2002) “Defining Corruption”, in A.J. Heidenheimer and M. Johnston, eds., Political Corruption: Concepts and Contexts . New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.

[27] Gilroy, P. ( 1990) “Nationalism, History and Ethnic Absolutism”, History Workshop 30( 1): 114– 120.

[28] Green, P.J. and Ward, T. ( 2000) “State Crime, Human Rights, and the Limits of Criminology”, Social Justice 27( 1): 101– 115.

[29] Harrell-Bond, B. ( 1986) Imposing Aid: Emergency Assistance to Refugees . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[30] Human Rights Watch ( 2003) Bhutan/Nepal: Trapped by Inequality: Bhutanese Refugee Women in Nepal . Report. New York: Human Rights Watch.

[31] Hutt, M. ( 2003) Unbecoming Citizens: Culture, Nationhood, and the Flight of Refugees from Bhutan . New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

[32] Hutt, M. ( 2005) “The Bhutanese Refugees: Between Verification, Repatriation and Royal Realpolitik”, Peace and Democracy in South Asia 1( 1): 44– 56.

[33] Kauzlarich, D., Matthews, R.A. and Miller, W.J. ( 2001) “Toward a Victimology of State Crime”, Critical Criminology 10( 3): 173– 194.

[34] Kritz, N.J. ( 1996) “Coming to Terms with Atrocities: A Review of Accountability Mechanisms for Mass Violations of Human Rights”, Law and Contemporary Problems 59( 4): 127– 152.

[35] Kymlicka, W. ( 1995) Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

[36] Lee, T.L. ( 1998) “Refugees from Bhutan: Nationality, Statelessness and the Right to Return”, International Journal of Refugee Law 10( 1/2): 118– 155.

[37] Laczo, M. ( 2003) “Deprived of an Individual Identity: Citizenship and Women in Nepal”, Gender & Development 11( 3): 76– 82.

[38] Loescher, G., Betts, A. and Milner, J. ( 2008) The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR): The Politics and Practice of Refugee Protection into the 21st Century . New York: Routledge.

[39] Malkki, L. ( 1995) Purity in Exile . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

[40] Menzies, K. ( 2000) “State Crime by the Police and its Control”, in J.I. Ross ed., Controlling State Crime . New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.

[41] Muggah, R. ( 2005) “Distinguishing Means and Ends: The Counterintuitive Effects of UNHCR's Community Development Approach in Nepal”, Journal of Refugee Studies 18( 2): 151– 164.

[42] O'Brien, M. ( 2010) “Fears of ‘Demographic Inundation’ Behind Bhutan's Refugee Crisis”, East Bay Times , 28 August. Available online at http://www.eastbaytimes.com/san-leandro/ci_15906108?source=pkg (accessed 9 August 2016).

[43] Ong, A. ( 1999) Flexible Citizenship: The Cultural Logics of Transnationality . Durham: Duke University Press.

[44] Orrù, E. and Ronzoni, M. ( 2011) “Which Supranational Sovereignty? Criminal and Socioeconomic Justice Compared”, Review of International Studies 37( 5): 2089– 2106.

[45] Pickering, S. ( 2005). Refugees and state crime . Sydney: Federation Press.

[46] Reilly, R. ( 1994) “Life and Work in the Refugee Camps in Southeast Nepal”, in M. Hutt, ed., Perspectives on Conflict and Dissent . Gartmore: Kiscadale Press.

[47] Rose, L.E ( 1977) The Politics of Bhutan . Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

[48] Ross, J.I. ( 1995) “Controlling State Crime: An Introduction”, Journal of Criminal Justice 23( 5): 493– 495.

[49] Ross, J.I. ( 2011) “Reinventing Controlling State Crime and Varieties of State Crime and Its Control: What I Would Have Done Differently”, in D.L. Rothe and C.W. Mullins, eds, State Crime: Current Perspectives . New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.

[50] Rothe, D.L. ( 2009) State Criminality: The Crime of all Crimes . Plymouth: Lexington Books.

[51] Saul, B. ( 2000) “Cultural Nationalism, Self-determination and Human Rights in Bhutan”, International Journal of Refugee Law 12( 3): 321– 353.

[52] Schoultz, I. ( 2014) “European Court of Human Rights: Accountability to Whom?” in D.L. Rothe and D. Kauzlarich, eds., Towards a Victimology of State Crime . New York: Routledge.

[53] Sharkansky, I. ( 1995) “A State Action May Be Nasty but Is Not Likely to Be a Crime”, in J.I. Ross, ed., Controlling State Crime: An Introduction . New York: Garland.

[54] Spiro, P.J. ( 2011) “A New International Law of Citizenship”, American Journal of International Law 105( 4): 694– 746.

[55] Thinley, J.Y. ( 1994) “A Kingdom Besieged”, in M. Hutt ed., Bhutan: Perspectives on Conflict and Dissent . Gartmore: Kiscadale Publications.

[56] Transparency International ( 2015) “Corruption Perceptions Index 2015”, Transparency International . Available online at http://www.transparency.org/cpi2015 (accessed 8 August 2016).

[57] Transparency International ( 2016) “Frequently Asked Questions on Corruption”, Transparency International . Available online at http://www.transparency.org/whoweare/organisation/faqs_on_corruption (accessed 23 February 2016).

[58] United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) ( 2008) A Community-Based Approach in UNHCR Operations . Geneva: Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.

[59] United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ( 2013) Global Appeal . Geneva: Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.

[60] Weber, M. ( 2004) “Politics as a Vocation”, in R. Livingstone, trans., D. Owen and T. Strong, eds, The Vocation Lectures . Chicago: Hackett Books.

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