E. Sokirianskaia, Bonds of Blood? State-Building and Clanship in Chechnya and Ingushetia. London, UK: Bloomsbury, 2023, 281pp., GBP 76.50 (paperback).
The book Bonds of Blood? State-Building and Clanship in Chechnya and Ingushetia by Ekaterina Sokirianskaia is a solid study that contributes to the understanding of state-building in relation to local traditions and customs. The book analyzes the case studies of Chechnya and Ingushetia—two very similar republics mainly populated by the Chechen and Ingush people who share many commonalities. Both ethnic groups are neighbours and have lived in the North Caucasus for centuries sharing large periods of history. Culturally they are so close that it is difficult to pinpoint differences in their traditions and customs. They speak such similar languages that one can understand the other without much effort.
The said commonalities encouraged Soviet scholars to work on uniting these two peoples, overcoming a split that occurred at the end of the 18th century, slightly before the beginning of the conquest of the North Caucasus known as the Caucasian War. The conquest of the Caucasus reunited both peoples again, and so did the Soviet politics that followed the collapse of the Empire. A new term “Vainakh” (meaning “our people” in Chechen and Ingush languages) was coined to refer to both ethnic groups. The appearance of this term marked the beginning of scholarly and political efforts of unification, which resulted in the creation of the Chechen–Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Region and later a republic in the 1930s. Sokirianskaia’s exploration complements the historical studies of the Chechen and Ingush autonomous republic such as Kozlov (2011) by adding nuances about the Soviet state-building in the region and expanding this focus into pre- and post-Soviet periods. Unfortunately, the book largely left out the Soviet efforts to construct a common Chechen and Ingush collective identity. It barely mentions this attempt of the Soviet authorities even though this question continues influencing Ingush and Chechen state-building up until now. The question of common collective identity keeps driving Chechen and Ingush political clashes over the common past and common or separate future.
Both peoples suffered jointly from the same injustice. In 1944, they were falsely accused of collaborating with the Nazis and were deported to Central Asia, resulting in a significant loss of population due to epidemic diseases and famine. The deportation brought the Chechens and Ingush closer together, as ethnic belonging mattered neither for the deportees nor for the Soviets. Survival was the paramount concern for both ethnic groups and they succeeded using the very same ethnic and religious organizational structures inherited from their ancestors (Werth 2006). The clan and Sufi-order-based communities successfully relied on social mechanisms that ensured justice, order, and social support. In this sense the study complements the research of Vatchagaev (2014) on Chechen teips and virds. These mechanisms are discussed by Sokirianskaia, who highlights what was utilized and what was left behind the state-building in Ingushetia and Chechnya later. In addition to this, Sokirianskaia’s book evaluates the impact of social mechanisms and structures, known as teips (clans), on the most recent efforts of state-building. The importance of this societal structure, which had the potential to be a foundation of the state in Chechnya and Ingushetia, is often exaggerated by scholars who work on the topic. In this sense, Sokiarianskaia’s book puts to an end the discussion regarding the importance of the teip structure in state-building during the historic periods under focus.
Sokiranskaia’s book supports Lazarev’s (2023) research on the legal pluralism in Chechnya by discussing, even if briefly, the complex interaction between the three law systems that existed and still exist in Chechnya. Similar to Lazarev, Sokirianskaia does not delve into the analysis deep enough to realize that all three systems serve the regime, which in essence undermines the concept of legal pluralism today. Nonetheless, both authors contribute to an understanding of how it used to be and what it would be like to live in a society that operates within the frame of three different legal systems. The image of the dynamic interaction between the traditional law, religious law (which is also impacted by the religious diversity within Islam) and secular (Russian) law shows that Chechnya and Ingushetia still have a parallel legal system to official legal structures. In other words, it seems that both societies have a state within a state system and provide alternative judicial mechanisms, as it used to be during the Soviet times. If Ingushetia, to some extent, still enjoys the benefits of legal pluralism, the Chechen elite that was formed under Ramzan Kadyrov, destroyed this system in Chechnya making a “Potiomkin village” out of it. Thus, the book would benefit from the analysis of the Soviet efforts to diminish the importance of the discussed societal structures in comparison to the post-Soviet era. Even without this exploration, the book of Sokirianskaia allows you to realize the potential role and importance of the social structures in the modern state-building and the findings suggest parallels with other traditional societies.
For a non-native of the North Caucasus, the author demonstrates a strong understanding of the traditions, history, and political reality of the North Caucasus. While there are some minor imprecisions that can be identified in the book, these likely stem from explanations given to the author by interviewees. One notable point is the unelaborated Table 4.1 on pages 70–71, which provides a less-than-exhaustive list of Chechen and Ingush teips (clans). It raises questions about why the author chose to include these teips over others. An explanatory note beneath the table would resolve this issue. Additionally, it remains unclear why the author chose to provide such a detailed description of the protests that took place in Ingushetia in 2019. It would be beneficial to clarify how these events affected state-building or demonstrated the strength of the bonds of blood, which the author does not do enough.
In sum, in the excellent book by Ekaterina Sokirianskaia, the reader (would it be a student, researcher, or just a curious individual) will find sufficient material to understand the processes of state-building in both republics. The book is based on extensive fieldwork, including dozens of interviews and years of participant observation, complemented by previously published research and archival materials. It provides a comprehensive understanding of the Ingush and Chechen histories, societies, and politics, which is very important for those interested in the North Caucasus. Sokirianskaia immerses the reader in a fascinating world of ancient traditions and their interaction with modernity, exploring how political developments affected societal structures and vice versa. What choices the politicians were making and how did their identities influence them in the process of state-building? The description and analysis are largely based on primary sources, offering insights into the lives of the Chechen and Ingush people. In this sense, the book is a comprehensive study that contributes to the scholarship on the history, culture, governments, and politics of the North Caucasus and wider Eurasia. Detailed analysis by Sokirianskaia can serve as a great source of knowledge for students and scholars who are interested in the North Caucasus and would like to analyze social and political processes in the region. It lays the background for the exploration of specifics of other complex phenomena such as separatism, radicalism, terrorism that are present in the region.
To conclude, the book adds significantly to the scholarship on Chechnya and Ingushetia. It serves as a valuable resource for students in various disciplines within the Social Sciences and is engaging for a general readership due to its well-written language, which captivates the reader’s attention throughout.