Is the European Union Evolving or Failing?

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Policy Perspectives

Volume 16, Issue 2

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Is the European Union Evolving or Failing?

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Author(s): Najimdeen Bakare ^* , Tatheer Zahra Sherazi ^**

Publication date (Print): 1 January 2019

Journal: Policy Perspectives

Publisher: Pluto Journals

Keywords: Populism, EU in Transition, EU's Demise, EU Legitimacy, EU-Exit, Brexit

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Journal ID (doi): 10.2307/j50009730

Journal ID (jcode): polipers

Title: Policy Perspectives

Publisher: Pluto Journals

ISSN: 1812-1829

ISSN: 1812-7347

Publication date (Print): 1 January 2019

Volume: 16

Issue: 2 ( doiID: 10.13169/polipers.16.issue-2 )

Pages: 5-25

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[* ]PhD, Assistant Professor/Head of Department, Centre for International Peace & Stability (CIPS), NUST Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies (NIPCONS), National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST), Islamabad.

[** ]PhD, Visiting Lecturer, International Islamic University, Islamabad.

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ScienceOpen disciplines: Education,Religious studies & Theology,Social & Behavioral Sciences,Law,Economics

Keywords: EU's Demise,EU-Exit, Brexit,Populism,EU Legitimacy,EU in Transition

Footnotes

Najimdeen Bakare, “EU in Transition or a Failed Project?” Policy Perspectives 11, no. 2 (2014):71-92, DOI: 10.13169/polipers.11.2.0071; and Wallace J. Thies, “Is the EU Collapsing?” International Studies Review 14, no. 2 (2012): 225-39, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2486.2012.01110.x.
Bakare, “EU in Transition or a Failed Project?” Enrico Spolaore, “What Is European Integration Really About? A Political Guide for Economists,” The Journal of Economic Perspectives 27, no. 3 (2013): 125-144; and Philippe C. Schmitter, How to Democratize the European Union…and why Bother? (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000).
Douglas Webber, European Disintegration? The Politics of Crisis in the European Union, The European Union Series (London: Red Globe Press, 2018).
George Soros, “The Disintegration of the EU is now Practically Irreversible,” South China Morning Post, June 27, 2016, https://www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/1982113/disintegration-eu-now-practically-irreversible.
Hans Vollaard, European Disintegration: A Search for Explanations, Palgrave Studies in European Union Politics (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018).
Vivien Schmidt, “The Eurozone's Crisis of Democratic Legitimacy: Can the EU Rebuild Public Trust and Support for European Economic Integration?” (paper 15, European Commission, Brussels, 2015), DOI: 10.2765/5015.
Diane Fromage and Ton van den Brink, “Democratic Legitimation of EU Economic Governance: Challenges and Opportunities for European Legislatures,” Journal of European Integration 40, no. 3 (2018):235-248 (236), https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2018.1450407.
Erik Jones, “Towards a Theory of Disintegration,” Journal of European Public Policy 25, no. 3 (2018):440-451, https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2017.1411381.
EC, Europeans and the EU Budget, Standard Eurobarometer 90, report (Brussels: European Commission, 2018).
Andrew Moravcsik, “Preferences, Power and Institutions in 21^st-Century Europe,” Journal of Common Market Studies 56, no. 7 (2018):1648-1674, http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jcms.12804; —, “In Defence of the Democratic Deficit: Reassessing Legitimacy in the European Union,” Journal of Common Market Studies 40, no. 3 (2002):603-624.
Fromage and Brink, “Democratic Legitimation of EU Economic Governance: Challenges and Opportunities for European Legislatures,” 236.
“Portugal Reaches Deal on EU and IMF Bail-out,” BBC News, May 4, 2011, https://www.bbc.com/news/business-13275470; and Phillip Inman, “IMF Clashes with Osborne over Refusal to Back Eurozone Bailout,” Guardian, April 17, 2011, https://www.theguardian.com/business/2011/apr/17/imf-clashes-osborne-eurozone-bailout.
“Eurozone Seeks Bailout Funds from China,” BBC News, October 28, 2011, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-15489202.
Ingrid Melander and Harry Papachristou, “China's Wen Offers to Buy Greek Debt,” Reuters, October 2, 2010, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-greece-china/chinas-wen-offers-to-buy-greek-debt-idUSTRE69112L20101002. China bought Greek debt and same financial bailout was offered to Portugal.
“Euro Debt Crisis to Test EU-China Partnership,” EURACTIV, February 14 2012, https://www.euractiv.com/section/global-europe/news/euro-debt-crisis-to-test-eu-china-partnership/820179/; and Wolf Richter, “The Crisis isn't Bad Enough for Europe to Give in to China Yet,” Business Insider, November 14, 2011, https://www.businessinsider.com/eurozone-refuses-chinese-demands-turns-down-bailout-money-2011-11.
Andrew Moravcsik, “Europe After the Crisis: How to Sustain a Common Currency,” Foreign Affairs 91, no 3 (2012):54-68 (58).
Najimdeen Bakare, “The Breakdown of Socialisation and Political Re-assertiveness of European Far-Right,” Policy Perspectives 14, no. 2 (2017): 55-82, DOI: 10.13169/polipers.14.2.0055.
Najimdeen Bakare, “Redefining Democracy and Political Assertiveness: A Constructivist Exposition of European Populism,” in Anti-Europeanism: Critical Perspectives towards the European Union, eds. Marco Baldassari, Emanuele Castelli, Matteo Truffeli and Giovanni Vezzani (Heidelberg: Springer, 2019), 57-73.
Louise Fawcett and Andrew Hurrell, eds., Regionalism in World Politics: Regional Organization and International Order (Oxford: Oxford University, 1995).
Stephan Lewandowsky, “Why is Populism Popular? A Psychologist Explains,” Conversation, June 21, 2016, https://theconversation.com/why-is-populism-popular-a-psychologist-explains-61319.
Nathalie Brack and Nicholas Startin, “Introduction: Euroscepticism, from the Margins to the Mainstream,” International Political Science Review 36, no. 3, (2015): 239-249, https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512115577231.
Gráinne de Búrca, “Is EU Supranational Governance a Challenge to Liberal Constitutionalism?” The University of Chicago Law Review 85, no. 2 (2018): 337-367, https://lawreview.uchicago.edu/sites/lawreview.uchicago.edu/files/04%20deBurca_S YMP_Online.pdf.
James McCarthy, “Authoritarianism, Populism, and the Environment: Comparative Experiences, Insights, and Perspectives,” Annals of the American Association of Geographers 109, no. 2 (2019): 301-313, https://doi.org/10.1080/24694452.2018.1554393; and Gábor Halmai, “Populism, Authoritarianism and Constitutionalism,” German Law Journal, 20, no. 3 (2019):296-313, https://doi.org/10.1017/glj.2019.23; and Cas Mudde, Populist Radical Right Parties in Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).
Brack and Startin, “Introduction: Euroscepticism, from the Margins to the Mainstream;” and Marianne Kneuer, “The Tandem of Populism and Euroscepticism: A Comparative Perspective in the Light of the European Crises,” Contemporary Social Science 14, no. 1 (2019): 26-42, https://doi.org/10.1080/21582041.2018.1426874.
Mark Leonard, “The British Problem and What it Means for Europe” (brief ECFR/128, European Council on Foreign Relations, London, 2015), 1-12, https://www.ecfr.eu/page/-/ECFR_128_BREXIT_(March_-_final).pdf.
Kate Lyons and Gordon Darroch, “Frexit, Nexit or Oexit? Who will be Next to Leave the EU,” Guardian, June 27, 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/jun/27/frexit-nexit-or-oexit-who-will-be-next-to-leave-the-eu.
Bakare, “EU in Transition or a Failed Project?”
“Locality Politics” in Political Geography, World Economy, Nation-state and Locality, Peter J. Taylor and Colin Flint, 4th ed. (Harlow: Prentice Hall, 2000).
Bakare, “The Breakdown of Socialisation and Political Re-assertiveness of European Far-Right.”
FRA, “Second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey – Main Result,” (Vienna: European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2017, https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/fra-2017-eu-midis-ii-main-results_en.pdf.
Kenneth Roth, “World's Autocrats Face Rising Resistance,” World Report 2019 (New York: Human Rights Watch, 2019), https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/world_report_download/hrw_world_report_2019.pdf.
Kenneth Roth, The Pushback against the Populist Challenge (New York: Human Rights Watch, 2018), https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/world_report_download/201801world_report _web.pdf.
Kenneth Roth, The Dangerous Rise of Populism: Global Attacks on Human Rights Values (New York: Human Right Watch – World Report 2017), https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/world_report_download/wr2017-web.pdf.
Jasper Muis and Tim Immerzeel, “Causes and Consequences of the Rise of Populist Radical Right Parties and Movements in Europe,” Current Sociology Review 65, no. 6 (2017): 909–930, https://doi.org/10.1177/0011392117717294.
Jeff Farrell, “Defend Europe: Anti-immigrant Ship Trying to Block Refugees from Crossing Mediterranean has Funding Cancelled,” Independent, August 14, 2017, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/defend-europe-finding-patreon-refugee-boats-mediterranean-sea-c-star-migrants-right-wing-ngo-rescue-a7891946.html.
Tamás Boros and Zoltán Vasali, “The Rise of Euroscepticism and Possible Responses Prior to the 2014 European Parliament Elections” (paper, Foundation for European Progressive Studies, Brussels, 2013), https://www.policysolutions.hu/userfiles/elemzes/220/the_rise_of_euroskepticism.pdf.
Frank Langfitt, “Here's Why Brexit Wasn't Followed by Frexit, Swexit or Nexit,” National Public Radio, April 26, 2019, https://www.npr.org/2019/04/26/715926169/heres-why-brexit-wasnt-followed-by-frexit-swexit-or-nexit.
EC, Europeans and the EU Budget.
European Commission, “Spring 2019 Standard Eurobarometer: Europeans Upbeat about the State of the European Union – Best Results in 5 Years.”
Aristotle Kallis, “Mainstreaming of Radical Right,” Insight Turkey, 20, no. 3 (2018): 61-76.
Bakare, “EU in Transition or a Failed Project?” 84.
Schmitter, How to Democratize the European Union…and why Bother?
Fromage and Brink, “Democratic Legitimation of EU Economic Governance: Challenges and Opportunities for European Legislatures,” 235.
Ludger Kühnhardt, ed., Crises in European Integration: Challenges and Response, 1945-2005 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2009).
Duarte Mendonca, Augusta Anthony and Ivana Kottasová, “David Cameron says Some People ‘Will Never Forgive’ him for Brexit,” CNN, September 14, 2019, https://edition.cnn.com/2019/09/14/uk/brexit-david-cameron-gbr-intl/index.html.
Owen Bowcott, Ben Quinn and Severin Carrell, “Johnson's Suspension of Parliament Unlawful, Supreme Court Rules,” Guardian, September 24, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/law/2019/sep/24/boris-johnsons-suspension-of-parliament-unlawful-supreme-court-rules-prorogue.
Libby Brooks and Poppy Noor, “‘I Feel Frustrated’: the Brexit View from Edinburgh and Hastings,” Guardian, March 15, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/mar/15/i-feel-frustrated-mps-leave-edinburgh-and-hastings-reeling-over-brexit-commons-remain-leave.
Langfitt, “Here's Why Brexit Wasn't Followed by Frexit, Swexit or Nexit.”
“No to Nexit: Dutch Most Likely to Vote to Stay in the EU,” Dutch News, April 25, 2019, https://www.dutchnews.nl/news/2019/04/no-to-nexit-dutch-most-likely-to-vote-to-stay-in-the-eu/.
Bruce Stokes, Richard Wike, and Dorothy Manevich, Post-Brexit, Europeans More Favourable Toward EU, report (Washington, D.C.: PEW Research Center, 2017), 4, https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2017/06/15/post-brexit-europeans-more-favorable-toward-eu/.
Ibid., 3.
Susi Dennison and Pawel Zerka, “The 2019 European Election: How Anti-Europeans Plan to Wreck Europe and What Can Be Done to Stop It” (paper, European Council on Foreign Relations, London, 2019), https://www.ecfr.eu/page/-/EUROPEAN_PARLIAMENT_FLASH_SCORECARD_.pdf.

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Comment on this article

[1] Najimdeen Bakare, “EU in Transition or a Failed Project?” Policy Perspectives 11, no. 2 (2014):71-92, DOI: 10.13169/polipers.11.2.0071; and Wallace J. Thies, “Is the EU Collapsing?” International Studies Review 14, no. 2 (2012): 225-39, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2486.2012.01110.x.

[2] Bakare, “EU in Transition or a Failed Project?” Enrico Spolaore, “What Is European Integration Really About? A Political Guide for Economists,” The Journal of Economic Perspectives 27, no. 3 (2013): 125-144; and Philippe C. Schmitter, How to Democratize the European Union…and why Bother? (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000).

[3] Douglas Webber, European Disintegration? The Politics of Crisis in the European Union, The European Union Series (London: Red Globe Press, 2018).

[4] George Soros, “The Disintegration of the EU is now Practically Irreversible,” South China Morning Post, June 27, 2016, https://www.scmp.com/comment/insight-opinion/article/1982113/disintegration-eu-now-practically-irreversible.

[5] Hans Vollaard, European Disintegration: A Search for Explanations, Palgrave Studies in European Union Politics (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018).

[6] Vivien Schmidt, “The Eurozone's Crisis of Democratic Legitimacy: Can the EU Rebuild Public Trust and Support for European Economic Integration?” (paper 15, European Commission, Brussels, 2015), DOI: 10.2765/5015.

[7] Diane Fromage and Ton van den Brink, “Democratic Legitimation of EU Economic Governance: Challenges and Opportunities for European Legislatures,” Journal of European Integration 40, no. 3 (2018):235-248 (236), https://doi.org/10.1080/07036337.2018.1450407.

[8] Erik Jones, “Towards a Theory of Disintegration,” Journal of European Public Policy 25, no. 3 (2018):440-451, https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2017.1411381.

[9] EC, Europeans and the EU Budget, Standard Eurobarometer 90, report (Brussels: European Commission, 2018).

[10] Andrew Moravcsik, “Preferences, Power and Institutions in 21^st-Century Europe,” Journal of Common Market Studies 56, no. 7 (2018):1648-1674, http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jcms.12804; —, “In Defence of the Democratic Deficit: Reassessing Legitimacy in the European Union,” Journal of Common Market Studies 40, no. 3 (2002):603-624.

[11] Fromage and Brink, “Democratic Legitimation of EU Economic Governance: Challenges and Opportunities for European Legislatures,” 236.

[12] “Portugal Reaches Deal on EU and IMF Bail-out,” BBC News, May 4, 2011, https://www.bbc.com/news/business-13275470; and Phillip Inman, “IMF Clashes with Osborne over Refusal to Back Eurozone Bailout,” Guardian, April 17, 2011, https://www.theguardian.com/business/2011/apr/17/imf-clashes-osborne-eurozone-bailout.

[13] “Eurozone Seeks Bailout Funds from China,” BBC News, October 28, 2011, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-15489202.

[14] Ingrid Melander and Harry Papachristou, “China's Wen Offers to Buy Greek Debt,” Reuters, October 2, 2010, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-greece-china/chinas-wen-offers-to-buy-greek-debt-idUSTRE69112L20101002. China bought Greek debt and same financial bailout was offered to Portugal.

[15] “Euro Debt Crisis to Test EU-China Partnership,” EURACTIV, February 14 2012, https://www.euractiv.com/section/global-europe/news/euro-debt-crisis-to-test-eu-china-partnership/820179/; and Wolf Richter, “The Crisis isn't Bad Enough for Europe to Give in to China Yet,” Business Insider, November 14, 2011, https://www.businessinsider.com/eurozone-refuses-chinese-demands-turns-down-bailout-money-2011-11.

[16] Andrew Moravcsik, “Europe After the Crisis: How to Sustain a Common Currency,” Foreign Affairs 91, no 3 (2012):54-68 (58).

[17] Najimdeen Bakare, “The Breakdown of Socialisation and Political Re-assertiveness of European Far-Right,” Policy Perspectives 14, no. 2 (2017): 55-82, DOI: 10.13169/polipers.14.2.0055.

[18] Najimdeen Bakare, “Redefining Democracy and Political Assertiveness: A Constructivist Exposition of European Populism,” in Anti-Europeanism: Critical Perspectives towards the European Union, eds. Marco Baldassari, Emanuele Castelli, Matteo Truffeli and Giovanni Vezzani (Heidelberg: Springer, 2019), 57-73.

[19] Louise Fawcett and Andrew Hurrell, eds., Regionalism in World Politics: Regional Organization and International Order (Oxford: Oxford University, 1995).

[20] Stephan Lewandowsky, “Why is Populism Popular? A Psychologist Explains,” Conversation, June 21, 2016, https://theconversation.com/why-is-populism-popular-a-psychologist-explains-61319.

[21] Nathalie Brack and Nicholas Startin, “Introduction: Euroscepticism, from the Margins to the Mainstream,” International Political Science Review 36, no. 3, (2015): 239-249, https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512115577231.

[22] Gráinne de Búrca, “Is EU Supranational Governance a Challenge to Liberal Constitutionalism?” The University of Chicago Law Review 85, no. 2 (2018): 337-367, https://lawreview.uchicago.edu/sites/lawreview.uchicago.edu/files/04%20deBurca_S YMP_Online.pdf.

[23] James McCarthy, “Authoritarianism, Populism, and the Environment: Comparative Experiences, Insights, and Perspectives,” Annals of the American Association of Geographers 109, no. 2 (2019): 301-313, https://doi.org/10.1080/24694452.2018.1554393; and Gábor Halmai, “Populism, Authoritarianism and Constitutionalism,” German Law Journal, 20, no. 3 (2019):296-313, https://doi.org/10.1017/glj.2019.23; and Cas Mudde, Populist Radical Right Parties in Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).

[24] Brack and Startin, “Introduction: Euroscepticism, from the Margins to the Mainstream;” and Marianne Kneuer, “The Tandem of Populism and Euroscepticism: A Comparative Perspective in the Light of the European Crises,” Contemporary Social Science 14, no. 1 (2019): 26-42, https://doi.org/10.1080/21582041.2018.1426874.

[25] Mark Leonard, “The British Problem and What it Means for Europe” (brief ECFR/128, European Council on Foreign Relations, London, 2015), 1-12, https://www.ecfr.eu/page/-/ECFR_128_BREXIT_(March_-_final).pdf.

[26] Kate Lyons and Gordon Darroch, “Frexit, Nexit or Oexit? Who will be Next to Leave the EU,” Guardian, June 27, 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/jun/27/frexit-nexit-or-oexit-who-will-be-next-to-leave-the-eu.

[27] Bakare, “EU in Transition or a Failed Project?”

[28] “Locality Politics” in Political Geography, World Economy, Nation-state and Locality, Peter J. Taylor and Colin Flint, 4th ed. (Harlow: Prentice Hall, 2000).

[29] Bakare, “The Breakdown of Socialisation and Political Re-assertiveness of European Far-Right.”

[30] FRA, “Second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey – Main Result,” (Vienna: European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2017, https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/fra-2017-eu-midis-ii-main-results_en.pdf.

[31] Kenneth Roth, “World's Autocrats Face Rising Resistance,” World Report 2019 (New York: Human Rights Watch, 2019), https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/world_report_download/hrw_world_report_2019.pdf.

[32] Kenneth Roth, The Pushback against the Populist Challenge (New York: Human Rights Watch, 2018), https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/world_report_download/201801world_report _web.pdf.

[33] Kenneth Roth, The Dangerous Rise of Populism: Global Attacks on Human Rights Values (New York: Human Right Watch – World Report 2017), https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/world_report_download/wr2017-web.pdf.

[34] Jasper Muis and Tim Immerzeel, “Causes and Consequences of the Rise of Populist Radical Right Parties and Movements in Europe,” Current Sociology Review 65, no. 6 (2017): 909–930, https://doi.org/10.1177/0011392117717294.

[35] Jeff Farrell, “Defend Europe: Anti-immigrant Ship Trying to Block Refugees from Crossing Mediterranean has Funding Cancelled,” Independent, August 14, 2017, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/defend-europe-finding-patreon-refugee-boats-mediterranean-sea-c-star-migrants-right-wing-ngo-rescue-a7891946.html.

[36] Tamás Boros and Zoltán Vasali, “The Rise of Euroscepticism and Possible Responses Prior to the 2014 European Parliament Elections” (paper, Foundation for European Progressive Studies, Brussels, 2013), https://www.policysolutions.hu/userfiles/elemzes/220/the_rise_of_euroskepticism.pdf.

[37] Frank Langfitt, “Here's Why Brexit Wasn't Followed by Frexit, Swexit or Nexit,” National Public Radio, April 26, 2019, https://www.npr.org/2019/04/26/715926169/heres-why-brexit-wasnt-followed-by-frexit-swexit-or-nexit.

[38] EC, Europeans and the EU Budget.

[39] European Commission, “Spring 2019 Standard Eurobarometer: Europeans Upbeat about the State of the European Union – Best Results in 5 Years.”

[40] Aristotle Kallis, “Mainstreaming of Radical Right,” Insight Turkey, 20, no. 3 (2018): 61-76.

[41] Bakare, “EU in Transition or a Failed Project?” 84.

[42] Schmitter, How to Democratize the European Union…and why Bother?

[43] Fromage and Brink, “Democratic Legitimation of EU Economic Governance: Challenges and Opportunities for European Legislatures,” 235.

[44] Ludger Kühnhardt, ed., Crises in European Integration: Challenges and Response, 1945-2005 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2009).

[45] Duarte Mendonca, Augusta Anthony and Ivana Kottasová, “David Cameron says Some People ‘Will Never Forgive’ him for Brexit,” CNN, September 14, 2019, https://edition.cnn.com/2019/09/14/uk/brexit-david-cameron-gbr-intl/index.html.

[46] Owen Bowcott, Ben Quinn and Severin Carrell, “Johnson's Suspension of Parliament Unlawful, Supreme Court Rules,” Guardian, September 24, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/law/2019/sep/24/boris-johnsons-suspension-of-parliament-unlawful-supreme-court-rules-prorogue.

[47] Libby Brooks and Poppy Noor, “‘I Feel Frustrated’: the Brexit View from Edinburgh and Hastings,” Guardian, March 15, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/mar/15/i-feel-frustrated-mps-leave-edinburgh-and-hastings-reeling-over-brexit-commons-remain-leave.

[48] Langfitt, “Here's Why Brexit Wasn't Followed by Frexit, Swexit or Nexit.”

[49] “No to Nexit: Dutch Most Likely to Vote to Stay in the EU,” Dutch News, April 25, 2019, https://www.dutchnews.nl/news/2019/04/no-to-nexit-dutch-most-likely-to-vote-to-stay-in-the-eu/.

[50] Bruce Stokes, Richard Wike, and Dorothy Manevich, Post-Brexit, Europeans More Favourable Toward EU, report (Washington, D.C.: PEW Research Center, 2017), 4, https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2017/06/15/post-brexit-europeans-more-favorable-toward-eu/.

[51] Ibid., 3.

[52] Susi Dennison and Pawel Zerka, “The 2019 European Election: How Anti-Europeans Plan to Wreck Europe and What Can Be Done to Stop It” (paper, European Council on Foreign Relations, London, 2019), https://www.ecfr.eu/page/-/EUROPEAN_PARLIAMENT_FLASH_SCORECARD_.pdf.