The Black Panther Party&apos;s War of Position, Neoliberal Passive Revolution, and the Origin of the Prison Industrial Complex in the U.S. and Canada

Harris, Chris

doi:10.13169/groudevepanacrit.3.1.0017

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Groundings: Development, Pan-Africanism and Critical Theory

Volume 3, Issue 1

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The Black Panther Party's War of Position, Neoliberal Passive Revolution, and the Origin of the Prison Industrial Complex in the U.S. and Canada

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Author(s): Chris Harris

Publication date (Print): 1 July 2018

Journal: Groundings: Development, Pan-Africanism and Critical Theory

Publisher: Pluto Journals

Keywords: Black Panther Party, War of Position, Neoliberal Passive Revolution, Counter-Reformation

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Chris Harris

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Journal ID (doi): 10.2307/j50020078

Journal ID (jcode): groudevepanacrit

Title: Groundings: Development, Pan-Africanism and Critical Theory

Publisher: Pluto Journals

ISSN: 2515-2106

ISSN: 2573-069X

Publication date (Print): 1 July 2018

Volume: 3

Issue: 1 ( doiID: 10.13169/groudevepanacrit.3.issue-1 )

Pages: 17-49

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Freedom Justice Academy (FJA)

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Publisher ID: groudevepanacrit.3.1.0017

DOI: 10.13169/groudevepanacrit.3.1.0017

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ScienceOpen disciplines: Economic development,Political science,Social & Behavioral Sciences,General social science,Development studies,Cultural studies

Keywords: Neoliberal Passive Revolution,War of Position,Black Panther Party,Counter-Reformation

References

Alexander, Michelle. The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. New York: The New Press, 2010.
Antonio, Robert. J. and Bonano, Alessandro. “A New Global Capitalism? From ‘Americanism and Fordism’ to ‘Americanization-Globalization.‘” American Studies 41(2/3) (2000): 33-77.
Associated Press. The End of a Prison Offers New Hope to Camden Area (2009).
Atkinson, Richard. and Fiorito, Joe. Life Crimes and Hard Times of Ricky Atkinson - Leader of the Dirty Tricks Gang: A True Story. Toronto: Exile Editions, 2017.
Austin, David. Fear of a Black Planet; Race, Sex, and Security in Sixties Montreal. Toronto: Between the Lines, 2013.
Bania, Melanie. “Gang Violence among Youth and Young Adults: (Dis) Affiliation and the Potential for Prevention.” IPC Review 3 (2009). http://www.socialsciences.uottawa.ca/ipc/eng/documents/IPCR3Bania.pdf
Baum, Dan. “Legalize It All: How To Win The War On Drugs. Harper's Magazine (2016). https://harpers.org/archive/2016/04/legalize-it-all/
Bloom, Joshua. and Martin, Jr., Waldo. Blacks Against Empire: The History and Politics of the Black Panther Party. Berkely, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2013.
Booker, B. B. “President Jimmy Carter and African-American Disillusionment: African-Americans and the Presidency” (Blog) (2014). http://www.blacksandpresidency.com/jimmycarter.php
Bossy, John. The Counter-Reformation and the People of the Catholic Europe: Past and Present 47(1) (1970): 51-70. DOI: 10.1093/past/47.1.51
Bowers, Devon D. “Black Capitalism.” American Herald Tribune (2016). https://ahtribune.com/history/508-black-capitalism.html
Buitenhuis, Amy Johanna. “Public-Private Sector Partnerships and Prison Expansion in Ontario: Shifts in Governance, 1995-2012.” Toronto: University of Toronto (2013, Unpublished Master's Thesis).
Candeias, Mario. “Passive Revolutions vs. Socialist Transformation.” Background paper for the Commons-Conference in Rome, 2011 (organized by Rosa Luxemburg Foundation Brussels).
Carley, Robert. “Ideological Contention: Antonio Gramsci and the Connection between Race and Social Movement Mobilization in Early Twentieth-Century Italy.” Sociological Focus 49(1) (2016): 28-43. DOI: 10.1080/00380237.2015.1065700
Castells, Robert. Les Metamorphoses de la Question Sociale. Paris: Librairie Artheme Fayard, 1995.
Carlson, Kathlyn Blaze. “The Largest Expansion of Prison Building ‘Since the 1930s.‘” National Post (2011, September 24).
Centeno, Miguel and Joseph N. Cohen. “The Arc of Neoliberalism.” Annual Review of Sociology 9(1) (2012): 317-340. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-soc-081309-150235
Comack, Elizabeth, Cara Fabre, and Shanise Burgher. “The Impact of Stephen Harper's ‘Tough On Crime‘” Strategy: Hearing From Frontline Workers. Manitoba: Centre for Policy Alternatives, 2015.
Correctional Service of Canada. “Roadmap to Strengthening Public Safety: Report of the Correctional Service of Canada.” Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada, 2007.
Coutinho, Carlos Nelson. Gramsci's Political Thought. Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books, 2013.
CP USA. FAQ, (2009). www.cpusa.org/article/static/511/#question6
C-SPAN. Clinton Appearance on the Arsenio Hall Show (1992). https://www.c-span.org/video/?26472-1/clinton-appearance-arsenio-hall-show
Davidson, Alastair. “Gramsci Hegemony, Globalization.” Kasarinlan: Philippine Journal of Third World Studies 20(2) (2005): 4-36.
Douyon. Emerson. Ethnocultural Minorities and the Canadian Correctional System. Ottawa: Correctional Service of Canada, 2016.
Dr. Huey P. Newton Foundation. The Black Panther Party: Service to the People Programs. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2008.
Editorial. “The Content and the Phrase: Myth and Hegemony Today.” Upping the Anti 8 (2009).
Egan, Daniel. “Insurrection and Gramsci's ‘War of Position‘”. Socialism and Democracy Online; (2016). http://sdonline.org/67/insurrection-and-gramscis-war-of-position/
Foner, S. Phillip. The Black Panthers Speak. New York: J.B. Lippincot Company, 1970.
Forman, Jr., James. Locking Up Our Own: Crime and Punishment in Black America. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2017.
Gill, Stephen. “Gramsci, Modernity and Globalization.” International Gramsci Society (2003). Presented for the conference “Gramsci and the Twentieth Century.” Istituto Fondazione Gramsci, Sardinia (1997). http://www.internationalgramscisociety.org/resources/online_articles/articles/gill01.shtml
Goodman, Amy. “Former Black Panther Eddie Conway Released After Serving 44 Years.” Rabble. ca. 2014. http://rabble.ca/columnists/2014/03/former-black-panther-eddie-conway-released-after-44-years-prison
Gramsci, Antonio. Selections from the Prison Notebooks. Q. Hoare and G.N. Smith, eds. New York: International Publishers, 1971.
Gramsci, Antonio. Selections from Political Writings, 1921-1926, Q. Hoare and G.N. Smith, eds. New York: International Publishers; London: Lawrence and Wishard, 1978.
Gramsci, Antonio. Prison Notebooks (Volume III), Joseph Buttigieg, ed. and trans. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.
Grayson, Deborah. and Ben Little. “Conjunctural Analysis and the Crisis of Ideas. Soundings 65 (2017): 59-75.
Harris, Chris. “Building to Building, Hood to Hood.” Upping the Anti 7 (2008, October): 73-85.
Harris, Chris. “Canadian Black Power, Organic Intellectuals, and the War of Position in Toronto, 1967-1975.” The CLR James Journal 20 (1-2) (2014): 139-158. DOI: 10.5840/clrjames20149159
Haywood, Harry. Black Bolshevik: Autobiography of an Afro-American Communist. Chicago: Liberator Press, 1979.
Hilliard, David. The Black Panther: Intercommunal News Service, 1967-1980. New York: Atria Books, 2007.
Hoffman, Austin D. “Black Lives Matter: Pain, Protest, and Representation.” Midwest Journal of Undergraduate Research (MJUR) 7 (2017): 223-243.
Ireland, Timothy. Antonio Gramsci and Adult Education: Reflections on the Brazilian Experience. Manchester: Manchester Monographs, 1987.
John Howard Society of Ontario. “First Report to the Board: The Superjails in Ontario.” Standing Committee on Prison Conditions in Ontario, 2006.
Jones, Charles E. “The Political Repression of the Black Panther Party, 1966-1971: The Case of the Oakland Bay Area.” The Journal of Black Studies 18(4) (1988): 415-434. DOI: 10.1177/002193478801800402 Justice Policy Institute. Too Little Too Late: President Clinton's Prison Legacy. http://www.cjcj.org/uploads/cjcj/documents/too_little.pdf
Harris, Kathleen. (2019, August 12). “Liberals commit almost $26M to offset Ford's legal aid cuts for refugees, immigrants. CBC News. https://cbc.ca/news/politics/legal-aid-trudeau-ford-cuts-1.5243844
Landry, Bart. The New Black Middle-Class. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1987.
Lenin, Vladimir I. What Must Be Done? Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1902/1947.
Levitz, Eric. Bill Clinton Admits His Crime Law Made Mass Incarceration ‘Worse.‘ MSNBC (2015, July 15). http://www.msnbc.com/msnbc/clinton-admits-his-crime-bill-made-mass-incarceration-worse
Li, Xing. “Global Capitalism and the Crisis of Passive Revolution.” Paper presented at Democratizing Processes Beyond the Nation State. Vra, Denmark, 2004.
Li, Xing and Jacques Hersch. “Understanding Global Capitalism: Passive Revolution and Double Movement in the Era of Globalization.” American Review of Political Economy 4(1/2) (2006): 36-55.
Lombroso, Cesare. “Criminal Man.” in The Heritage of Modern Criminology, S.F. Sylvester, ed. Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Publishing, 1876/1972.
Lumenlearning.com. African-American Life in Reagan's America. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/ushistory/2ay/chapter/african
Mallea, Paula. “The Fear Factor: Stephen Harper's ‘Tough On Crime’ Agenda.” Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives (2010).
Mao, Tse Tung. “On Protracted War.” in Selected Works of Mao Tse-Tung, Volume II. Peking: Foreign Languages Press, (1938/1967): 113-194. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-08-022981-2.50011-9
Morton, Adam. D. “What is This Thing Called Passive Revolution?” For the Desk Drawer (Blog) (2017). http://adamdavidsonmorton.com/2012/07what-is-this-thing-called-passive-revolution/.
Newton, Huey P. To Die for the People: The Writings of Huey P. Newton. New York: Random House, 1972.
Palmer, Dustin. President Obama's Criminal Justice Legacy: What Went Wrong. Carceral Complex (Blog) (February 23, 2017). http://carceralcomplex.com/2017/02/president-obamas-criminal-justice-legacy-what-went-wrong/
Reshef, Yonatan and Sandra Rastin. Unions in the Time of Revolution: Government Restructuring in Alberta and Ontario. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003.
Robinson, William I. The Failure of Passive Revolution, 2017. www.alainet.org
Roccu, Roberto. “Passive Revolution Revisited: From the Prison Notebooks to Our ‘Great and Terrible World.‘” Capital & Class 41(3) (2017): 537-559. DOI: 10.1177/0309816817692120
Rodney, Walter. Walter Rodney Speaks: The Making of an African Intellectual. Trenton: Africa World Press, 1990.
Shakur, Assata. Assata: An Autobiography. London, UK: Zed Books, 1987.
Simon, Jonathan. “Mass Incarceration: From Social Policy to Social Problem.” in The Oxford Handbook of Sentencing and Corrections (2012): 23-52.
Simon, Jonathan. Governing through Crime: How the War on Crime Transformed American Democracy and Created a Culture of Fear. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199730148.013.0001
Taylor, Keeanga-Yamahta. From #BlackLivesMatter to Black Liberation. Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books, 2016.
Thomas, Peter. “Gramsci and the Intellectuals: Modern Prince vs. Passive Revolution.” in Marxism, Intellectuals and Politics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007: 68-85. DOI: 10.1057/9780230596351_4
Webb, Gary. Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion. New York: Seven Stories Press, 1998.
Weems, Jr., Robert and Lewis A. Randolph. “The National Response to Richard M. Nixon's Black Capitalism Initiative: The Success of Domestic Détente.” Journal of Black Studies 32(1) (2001): 66-83. DOI: 10.1177/002193470103200104
Wilson, Frank. “Rising Tide or Ebb Tide? Recent Changes in the Black Middle Class in the U.S., 1980-1990.” Research in Race and Ethnic Relations 8 (1995): 21-55.

Comments

Comment on this article

[1] Alexander, Michelle. The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. New York: The New Press, 2010.

[2] Antonio, Robert. J. and Bonano, Alessandro. “A New Global Capitalism? From ‘Americanism and Fordism’ to ‘Americanization-Globalization.‘” American Studies 41(2/3) (2000): 33-77.

[3] Associated Press. The End of a Prison Offers New Hope to Camden Area (2009).

[4] Atkinson, Richard. and Fiorito, Joe. Life Crimes and Hard Times of Ricky Atkinson - Leader of the Dirty Tricks Gang: A True Story. Toronto: Exile Editions, 2017.

[5] Austin, David. Fear of a Black Planet; Race, Sex, and Security in Sixties Montreal. Toronto: Between the Lines, 2013.

[6] Bania, Melanie. “Gang Violence among Youth and Young Adults: (Dis) Affiliation and the Potential for Prevention.” IPC Review 3 (2009). http://www.socialsciences.uottawa.ca/ipc/eng/documents/IPCR3Bania.pdf

[7] Baum, Dan. “Legalize It All: How To Win The War On Drugs. Harper's Magazine (2016). https://harpers.org/archive/2016/04/legalize-it-all/

[8] Bloom, Joshua. and Martin, Jr., Waldo. Blacks Against Empire: The History and Politics of the Black Panther Party. Berkely, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2013.

[9] Booker, B. B. “President Jimmy Carter and African-American Disillusionment: African-Americans and the Presidency” (Blog) (2014). http://www.blacksandpresidency.com/jimmycarter.php

[10] Bossy, John. The Counter-Reformation and the People of the Catholic Europe: Past and Present 47(1) (1970): 51-70. DOI: 10.1093/past/47.1.51

[11] Bowers, Devon D. “Black Capitalism.” American Herald Tribune (2016). https://ahtribune.com/history/508-black-capitalism.html

[12] Buitenhuis, Amy Johanna. “Public-Private Sector Partnerships and Prison Expansion in Ontario: Shifts in Governance, 1995-2012.” Toronto: University of Toronto (2013, Unpublished Master's Thesis).

[13] Candeias, Mario. “Passive Revolutions vs. Socialist Transformation.” Background paper for the Commons-Conference in Rome, 2011 (organized by Rosa Luxemburg Foundation Brussels).

[14] Carley, Robert. “Ideological Contention: Antonio Gramsci and the Connection between Race and Social Movement Mobilization in Early Twentieth-Century Italy.” Sociological Focus 49(1) (2016): 28-43. DOI: 10.1080/00380237.2015.1065700

[15] Castells, Robert. Les Metamorphoses de la Question Sociale. Paris: Librairie Artheme Fayard, 1995.

[16] Carlson, Kathlyn Blaze. “The Largest Expansion of Prison Building ‘Since the 1930s.‘” National Post (2011, September 24).

[17] Centeno, Miguel and Joseph N. Cohen. “The Arc of Neoliberalism.” Annual Review of Sociology 9(1) (2012): 317-340. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-soc-081309-150235

[18] Comack, Elizabeth, Cara Fabre, and Shanise Burgher. “The Impact of Stephen Harper's ‘Tough On Crime‘” Strategy: Hearing From Frontline Workers. Manitoba: Centre for Policy Alternatives, 2015.

[19] Correctional Service of Canada. “Roadmap to Strengthening Public Safety: Report of the Correctional Service of Canada.” Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada, 2007.

[20] Coutinho, Carlos Nelson. Gramsci's Political Thought. Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books, 2013.

[21] CP USA. FAQ, (2009). www.cpusa.org/article/static/511/#question6

[22] C-SPAN. Clinton Appearance on the Arsenio Hall Show (1992). https://www.c-span.org/video/?26472-1/clinton-appearance-arsenio-hall-show

[23] Davidson, Alastair. “Gramsci Hegemony, Globalization.” Kasarinlan: Philippine Journal of Third World Studies 20(2) (2005): 4-36.

[24] Douyon. Emerson. Ethnocultural Minorities and the Canadian Correctional System. Ottawa: Correctional Service of Canada, 2016.

[25] Dr. Huey P. Newton Foundation. The Black Panther Party: Service to the People Programs. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2008.

[26] Editorial. “The Content and the Phrase: Myth and Hegemony Today.” Upping the Anti 8 (2009).

[27] Egan, Daniel. “Insurrection and Gramsci's ‘War of Position‘”. Socialism and Democracy Online; (2016). http://sdonline.org/67/insurrection-and-gramscis-war-of-position/

[28] Foner, S. Phillip. The Black Panthers Speak. New York: J.B. Lippincot Company, 1970.

[29] Forman, Jr., James. Locking Up Our Own: Crime and Punishment in Black America. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2017.

[30] Gill, Stephen. “Gramsci, Modernity and Globalization.” International Gramsci Society (2003). Presented for the conference “Gramsci and the Twentieth Century.” Istituto Fondazione Gramsci, Sardinia (1997). http://www.internationalgramscisociety.org/resources/online_articles/articles/gill01.shtml

[31] Goodman, Amy. “Former Black Panther Eddie Conway Released After Serving 44 Years.” Rabble. ca. 2014. http://rabble.ca/columnists/2014/03/former-black-panther-eddie-conway-released-after-44-years-prison

[32] Gramsci, Antonio. Selections from the Prison Notebooks. Q. Hoare and G.N. Smith, eds. New York: International Publishers, 1971.

[33] Gramsci, Antonio. Selections from Political Writings, 1921-1926, Q. Hoare and G.N. Smith, eds. New York: International Publishers; London: Lawrence and Wishard, 1978.

[34] Gramsci, Antonio. Prison Notebooks (Volume III), Joseph Buttigieg, ed. and trans. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.

[35] Grayson, Deborah. and Ben Little. “Conjunctural Analysis and the Crisis of Ideas. Soundings 65 (2017): 59-75.

[36] Harris, Chris. “Building to Building, Hood to Hood.” Upping the Anti 7 (2008, October): 73-85.

[37] Harris, Chris. “Canadian Black Power, Organic Intellectuals, and the War of Position in Toronto, 1967-1975.” The CLR James Journal 20 (1-2) (2014): 139-158. DOI: 10.5840/clrjames20149159

[38] Haywood, Harry. Black Bolshevik: Autobiography of an Afro-American Communist. Chicago: Liberator Press, 1979.

[39] Hilliard, David. The Black Panther: Intercommunal News Service, 1967-1980. New York: Atria Books, 2007.

[40] Hoffman, Austin D. “Black Lives Matter: Pain, Protest, and Representation.” Midwest Journal of Undergraduate Research (MJUR) 7 (2017): 223-243.

[41] Ireland, Timothy. Antonio Gramsci and Adult Education: Reflections on the Brazilian Experience. Manchester: Manchester Monographs, 1987.

[42] John Howard Society of Ontario. “First Report to the Board: The Superjails in Ontario.” Standing Committee on Prison Conditions in Ontario, 2006.

[43] Jones, Charles E. “The Political Repression of the Black Panther Party, 1966-1971: The Case of the Oakland Bay Area.” The Journal of Black Studies 18(4) (1988): 415-434. DOI: 10.1177/002193478801800402 Justice Policy Institute. Too Little Too Late: President Clinton's Prison Legacy. http://www.cjcj.org/uploads/cjcj/documents/too_little.pdf

[44] Harris, Kathleen. (2019, August 12). “Liberals commit almost $26M to offset Ford's legal aid cuts for refugees, immigrants. CBC News. https://cbc.ca/news/politics/legal-aid-trudeau-ford-cuts-1.5243844

[45] Landry, Bart. The New Black Middle-Class. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1987.

[46] Lenin, Vladimir I. What Must Be Done? Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1902/1947.

[47] Levitz, Eric. Bill Clinton Admits His Crime Law Made Mass Incarceration ‘Worse.‘ MSNBC (2015, July 15). http://www.msnbc.com/msnbc/clinton-admits-his-crime-bill-made-mass-incarceration-worse

[48] Li, Xing. “Global Capitalism and the Crisis of Passive Revolution.” Paper presented at Democratizing Processes Beyond the Nation State. Vra, Denmark, 2004.

[49] Li, Xing and Jacques Hersch. “Understanding Global Capitalism: Passive Revolution and Double Movement in the Era of Globalization.” American Review of Political Economy 4(1/2) (2006): 36-55.

[50] Lombroso, Cesare. “Criminal Man.” in The Heritage of Modern Criminology, S.F. Sylvester, ed. Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Publishing, 1876/1972.

[51] Lumenlearning.com. African-American Life in Reagan's America. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/ushistory/2ay/chapter/african

[52] Mallea, Paula. “The Fear Factor: Stephen Harper's ‘Tough On Crime’ Agenda.” Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives (2010).

[53] Mao, Tse Tung. “On Protracted War.” in Selected Works of Mao Tse-Tung, Volume II. Peking: Foreign Languages Press, (1938/1967): 113-194. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-08-022981-2.50011-9

[54] Morton, Adam. D. “What is This Thing Called Passive Revolution?” For the Desk Drawer (Blog) (2017). http://adamdavidsonmorton.com/2012/07what-is-this-thing-called-passive-revolution/.

[55] Newton, Huey P. To Die for the People: The Writings of Huey P. Newton. New York: Random House, 1972.

[56] Palmer, Dustin. President Obama's Criminal Justice Legacy: What Went Wrong. Carceral Complex (Blog) (February 23, 2017). http://carceralcomplex.com/2017/02/president-obamas-criminal-justice-legacy-what-went-wrong/

[57] Reshef, Yonatan and Sandra Rastin. Unions in the Time of Revolution: Government Restructuring in Alberta and Ontario. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003.

[58] Robinson, William I. The Failure of Passive Revolution, 2017. www.alainet.org

[59] Roccu, Roberto. “Passive Revolution Revisited: From the Prison Notebooks to Our ‘Great and Terrible World.‘” Capital & Class 41(3) (2017): 537-559. DOI: 10.1177/0309816817692120

[60] Rodney, Walter. Walter Rodney Speaks: The Making of an African Intellectual. Trenton: Africa World Press, 1990.

[61] Shakur, Assata. Assata: An Autobiography. London, UK: Zed Books, 1987.

[62] Simon, Jonathan. “Mass Incarceration: From Social Policy to Social Problem.” in The Oxford Handbook of Sentencing and Corrections (2012): 23-52.

[63] Simon, Jonathan. Governing through Crime: How the War on Crime Transformed American Democracy and Created a Culture of Fear. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199730148.013.0001

[64] Taylor, Keeanga-Yamahta. From #BlackLivesMatter to Black Liberation. Chicago, IL: Haymarket Books, 2016.

[65] Thomas, Peter. “Gramsci and the Intellectuals: Modern Prince vs. Passive Revolution.” in Marxism, Intellectuals and Politics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007: 68-85. DOI: 10.1057/9780230596351_4

[66] Webb, Gary. Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion. New York: Seven Stories Press, 1998.

[67] Weems, Jr., Robert and Lewis A. Randolph. “The National Response to Richard M. Nixon's Black Capitalism Initiative: The Success of Domestic Détente.” Journal of Black Studies 32(1) (2001): 66-83. DOI: 10.1177/002193470103200104

[68] Wilson, Frank. “Rising Tide or Ebb Tide? Recent Changes in the Black Middle Class in the U.S., 1980-1990.” Research in Race and Ethnic Relations 8 (1995): 21-55.