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ADVANCES IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND THE INNOVATION STRATEGIES OF FIRMS
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NOTES AND REFERENCES
For this account I have drawn on K. Gertels, ‘Reisen, Boten, Posten, Korrespondenz in Mittelalter und früher Neuzeit’, in H. Pohl (ed.), Die Bedeutung der Kommunikation für Wirtschafts und Gesellschaft, Stuttgart, Steiner, 1989, pp. 19-36, as well as on L. Darmstaedter (ed.), Handbuch zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften und der Technik, 2nd edn., Berlin, Springer, 1908, pp. 258, 261.
Sombart W.. 1903. . Die deutsche Volkswirtschaft im Neunzehnten Jahrhundert . , p. 4––5. . Bondi : : Berlin. .
Quoted in Gertels, op. cit., p. 32.
W. Sachse, “Wirtschaftsliteratur und kommunikation bis 1800,” in Pohl, op. cit., p. 206.
Denning P. J.. 1989. . Worldnet. . American Scientist . , Vol. 77((5)): 432––4. .
P. V. Norden, ‘Message from the General Chairman’, ORSA/TIMS Bulletin, Program of the 28th Joint National Meeting, 1989, pp. vi-vii.
P. Drucker, ‘Information, communications, and understanding’, in Technology, Management and Society, New York, Harper & Row, 1970, p. 3.
A. Osborne, Running Wild: The Next Industrial Revolution, Berkeley, CA, Osborne/McGraw-Hill, 1979, ch. 7. Ironically, Osborne cautioned especially against the application of new techonlogy in three areas where it has since progressed very rapidly — voting, funds tranfers among banks, and the operation of stock exchanges.
J. H. Shera, ‘Librarianship and information science’, in F. Machlup and U. Mansfield (eds), The Study of Information: Interdisciplinary Messages, New York, Wiley, 1983, pp. 379–88.
F. Machlup, ‘Semantic quirks in the study of information’, in Machlup and Mansfield, op. cit., pp. 641–71.
R.R. Nelson and S.G. Winter, An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change, Cambridge, Mass., Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1982.
Another reason why organisational knowledge may deteriorate is that distortion, noise, and bias may affect its internal transmission. Furthermore, as I argue below, it may not always be in the interest of individuals to share their specialised knowledge with other members of the organisation.
Kline S. J. and Rosenberg N.. 1986. . “An overview of innovation. ”. In The Positive Sum Strategy: Harnessing Technology for Economic Growth . , Edited by: Landau R. and Rosenberg N.. p. 275––305. . Washington , DC : : National Academy Press. .
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Malecki E. J.. 1987. . The R&D location decision of the firm and “creative” regions. . Technovation . , Vol. 6((3)) August;: 205––22. .
An illustration of this tendency is provided in G. Rosegger, “Co-operative research in the automobile industry: a multinational perspective”, in A.N. Link and G. Tassey (eds), Co-operative Research and Development: The Industry-University-Government Relationship, Boston, Kluwer, 1989, pp. 167–86.
See, for example, Office of Technology Assessment, Commercialising High-Temperature Superconductivity, Washington, DC, US Government Printing Office, 1988, esp. p. 135; and B. Oakley and K. Owen, Alvey: Britain's Strategic Computing Initiative, Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press, 1989, p. 28 and elsewhere.
Congress of the United States, Office of Technology Assessment, Intellectual Property Rights in an Age of Electronics and Information, Washington, DC, US Government Printing Office, 1986, p. 3.
A. Marshall, Principles of Economics, 1890, 8th edn, New York, Macmillan, 1920, p. 281n.
The desire to internalise knowledge is, of course, one of the main reasons given for the existence of multinational firms. For implications of interest in the present context, see R. D. Pearce, The Internationalisation of Research and Development by Multinational Enterprises, New York, St. Martin's Press, 1989.
See for example, G. Rosegger, ‘The benefits and costs of international and technical co-operation in mature industries: and US perspective’, in Bela Gold (ed.), On the Increasing Role of Technology in Corporate Policy, special publication of the International Journal of Technology Management, 5, 7-9, 1991, pp. 256-73; and ‘Diffusion through interfirm co-operation: a case study’, in N. Nakicenovich and A. Grübler (eds), Rat Race Dynamics and Crazy Companies: The Diffusion of Technologies and Social Behaviour, Berlin-New York, Springer, in press.
DeGreene K. B.. 1973. . Sociotechnical Systems: Factors in Analysis, Design and Management . , Englewood Cliffs , NJ : : Prentice-Hall. .
B.A Cosgrove, ‘Aircraft technology development: the need for change’, paper presented at the International Conference on Technology Management, University of Miami, 17 February, 1988 (Seattle, WA, Boeing Commercial Airplane Co., 1988).
For an extended discussion, see R.U. Ayres, ‘Barriers and breakthroughs: an “expanding frontiers” model of the technology-industry life cycle’, Technovation, 7, 2, May 1988, pp. 87–115.
cf., Rosegger, “The benefits and costs …”, op. cit.
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Mayne L. S.. 1986. . Technological change and competition in American banking. . Technovation . , Vol. 4((1)) January;: 67––83. .
Benko R. P.. 1987. . Protecting Intellectual Property Rights: Issues and Controversies . , p. 36 Washington , DC : : American Enterprise Institute. .
W. F. Baxter, “Antitrust law and technological innovation”, Issues in Science and Technology, Winter 1985, pp. 80–91.
Erdilek A.. 1985. . Multinationals as Mutual Invaders: Intra-Industry Direct Foreign Investment . , London : : Croom-Helm. .
B. Gold, ‘Technological and other determinants of the international competitiveness of US industries’, IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, EM-30, 2, May 1983, pp. 53–9.
Hayek F. v.. 1945. . The use of knowledge in society. . American Economic Review . , Vol. 35((4)) September;: 519––30. .