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      Evolutionary origin and functioning of pregenital abdominal outgrowths in a viviparous insect, Arixenia esau

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          Abstract

          Although pregenital abdominal outgrowths occur only rarely in pterygote insects, they are interesting from the evolutionary viewpoint because of their potential homology to wings. Our previous studies of early development of an epizoic dermapteran, Arixenia esau revealed that abdominal segments of the advanced embryos and larvae, growing inside a mother’s uterus, are equipped with paired serial outgrowths. Here, we focus on the origin and functioning of these outgrowths. We demonstrate that they bud from the lateral parts of the abdominal nota, persist till the end of intrauterine development, and remain in contact with the uterus wall. We also show that the bundles of muscle fibers associated with the abdominal outgrowths may facilitate flow of the haemolymph from the outgrowths’ lumen to the larval body cavity. Following completion of the intrauterine development, abdominal outgrowths are shed together with the larval cuticle during the first molt after the larva birth. Using immunohistochemical and biochemical approaches, we demonstrate that the Arixenia abdominal outgrowths represent an evolutionary novelty, presumably related to intrauterine development, and suggest that they are not related to serial wing homologs.

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          Evolution of vertebrate viviparity and specializations for fetal nutrition: A quantitative and qualitative analysis.

          Phylogenetic analyses indicate that viviparity (live-bearing reproduction) has originated independently in more than 150 vertebrate lineages, including a minimum of 115 clades of extant squamate reptiles. Other evolutionary origins of viviparity include 13 origins among bony fishes, nine among chondrichthyans, eight in amphibians, one in Paleozoic placoderms, six among extinct reptiles, and one in mammals. The origins of viviparity range geologically from the mid-Paleozoic through the Mesozoic to the Pleistocene. Substantial matrotrophy (maternal provision of nutrients to embryos during pregnancy) has arisen at least 33 times in these viviparous clades, with most (26) of these origins having occurred among fishes and amphibians. Convergent evolution in patterns of matrotrophy is widespread, as reflected by multiple independent origins of placentotrophy, histotrophy, oophagy, and embryophagy. Specializations for nutrient transfer to embryos are discontinuously distributed, reflecting the roles of phylogenetic inertia, exaptation (preadaptation), and constraint. Ancestral features that function in gas exchange and nutrition repeatedly and convergently have been co-opted for nutrient transfer, often through minor modification of their components and changes in the timing of their expression (heterochrony). Studies on functional and evolutionary morphology continue to play a central role in our attempts to understand viviparity and mechanisms of fetal nutrition.
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            Enhanced chemiluminescence (ECL) for routine immunoblotting: An inexpensive alternative to commercially available kits.

            Immunoblotting is an analytical technique used by many laboratories to study protein expression. It involves electrophoretic separation of proteins by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), immobilization of these proteins onto a membrane of either nitrocellulose or polyvinylidene difluoride, incubation of the membrane in a monoclonal or polyclonal antibody and detection by a standard method such as enhanced chemiluminescence (ECL). To achieve this, most laboratories opt to use commercially-available chemiluminescence kits which are acceptable but relatively expensive. In this technical report, we show that a self-prepared chemiluminescence reagent is superior to a commercially obtained kit in terms of sensitivity, duration of signal, ease-of-use and shelf-life but at a fraction of the cost of a kit.
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              The Vestigial and Scalloped proteins act together to directly regulate wing-specific gene expression in Drosophila.

              A small number of major regulatory (selector) genes have been identified in animals that control the development of particular organs or complex structures. In Drosophila, the vestigial gene is required for wing formation and is able to induce wing-like outgrowths on other structures. However, the molecular function of the nuclear Vestigial protein, which bears no informative similarities to other proteins, was unknown. Here, we show that Vestigial requires the function of the Scalloped protein, a member of the TEA family of transcriptional regulators, to directly activate the expression of genes involved in wing morphogenesis. Genetic and molecular analyses reveal that Vestigial regulates wing identity by forming a complex with the Scalloped protein that binds sequence specifically to essential sites in wing-specific enhancers. These enhancers also require the direct inputs of signaling pathways, and the response of an enhancer can be switched to another pathway through changes in signal-transducer binding sites. Combinatorial regulation by selector proteins and signal transducers is likely to be a general feature of the tissue-specific control of gene expression during organogenesis.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                w.tworzydlo@uj.edu.pl
                Journal
                Sci Rep
                Sci Rep
                Scientific Reports
                Nature Publishing Group UK (London )
                2045-2322
                6 November 2019
                6 November 2019
                2019
                : 9
                : 16090
                Affiliations
                [1 ]ISNI 0000 0001 2162 9631, GRID grid.5522.0, Department of Developmental Biology and Invertebrate Morphology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Faculty of Biology, , Jagiellonian University in Krakow, ; Gronostajowa 9, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
                [2 ]ISNI 0000 0001 2162 9631, GRID grid.5522.0, Department of Endocrinology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Faculty of Biology, , Jagiellonian University in Krakow, ; Gronostajowa 9, 30-387 Krakow, Poland
                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1481-1050
                Article
                52568
                10.1038/s41598-019-52568-w
                6834671
                31695096
                a4c35870-a8b7-410c-b65e-9aa14836dabd
                © The Author(s) 2019

                Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

                History
                : 17 June 2019
                : 21 October 2019
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                © The Author(s) 2019

                Uncategorized
                morphogenesis,entomology,embryology
                Uncategorized
                morphogenesis, entomology, embryology

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