Case Study: A Patient with Asthma, Covid-19 Pneumonia and Cytokine Release Syndrome Treated with Corticosteroids and Tocilizumab

Abstract

INTRODUCTION Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the novel coronavirus first detected in Wuhan, China, that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) and pneumonia. Covid-19 pneumonia is defined by a positive result for SARS-CoV-2 on a reverse-transcriptase–polymerase-chain-reaction (RT-PCR) assay of a specimen collected from the upper or lower respiratory tract together with radiological features of pneumonia and clinical features of hypoxaemia and dyspnoea. Although more than 80% of patients with Covid-19 infection have mild disease and make a full recovery, a significant proportion of patients progress to pneumonia, and about half of these cases will develop severe acute respiratory syndrome (ARDS). Initial reports from China suggested that age >65 years and medical comorbidities are risk factors for poor outcomes.(1) The need for ICU admission and mechanical ventilation once ARDS develops is associated with a high mortality, ranging from 39% to 72%.(2,3) Current guidelines recommend that corticosteroids or immunosuppressive therapy should not be used in patients with Covid-19 pneumonia unless there are other indications, such as shock, asthma or exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.(4) However, the role of systemic corticosteroids is currently being re-evaluated in mechanically ventilated adults with ARDS, with some guidelines now suggesting their use.(5) We describe a case of a patient with Covid-19 infection, progressive pneumonia, development of a hyperinflammatory state and cytokine release syndrome (CRS) who was successfully treated with steroids and tocilizumab. CASE REPORT In January 2020, a 53-year-old gentleman with a background of asthma on long-term low dose inhaled corticosteroid inhaler had an acute exacerbation of his asthma in February 2020 triggered by a viral upper respiratory tract infection and acute sinusitis and was managed with bronchodilator nebulization and a 7-day course of oral prednisone 30 mg daily. He made an uneventful recovery and proceeded to travel to Austria on 29 February 2020. During his stay in Austria, he had contact with a Covid-19 positive individual and started developing upper respiratory symptoms on 7 March. On his return to South Africa on 8 March he had a fever, sore throat, dry cough, severe wheezing and worsening dyspnoea. At that stage a commercial test for Covid-19 PCR was not yet available to the private pathology laboratories and blood tests showed a normal full blood count and a C-reactive protein (CRP) of 16 mg/L. He was advised to self-isolate at home and was managed telephonically with bronchodilator nebulization, oral prednisone 30 mg daily for 5 days and paracetamol. By 11 March he was not feeling any better and had ongoing fever and cough. The Covid-19 PCR test had become available at that stage and his initial test with a private pathology laboratory was negative. Over the next 3 days his symptoms worsened, and on 16 March he was admitted to hospital to an isolation ward where blood tests showed a lymphopaenia and a rising CRP (Table 1). A high-resolution CT scan of his chest showed bilateral asymmetrical peripheral ground glass infiltrates in a subsegmental distribution, particularly in the lower zones. A repeat Covid-19 PCR swab on this occasion was positive and he was diagnosed with Covid-19 pneumonia. His oxygen saturation was 86% on room air. He was haemodynamically stable and was kept in strict isolation, and treatment was commenced with supplemental oxygen via a nasal cannula, paracetamol, chloroquine, azithromycin and lopinavir/ritonavir. In keeping with national and international guidelines recommending against the use of systemic corticosteroids, prednisone was discontinued. Table 1: Laboratory and pathology results during hospital admission and post discharge Date 2020-03-16 2020-03-17 2020-03-21 2020-03-23 2020-03-24 2020-03-25 2020-03-26 2020-03-27 2020-03-31 Laboratory marker White cell count (4–10 × 109/L) 7.0 6.1 9,6 7,6 9.5 8.1 6.3 6.6 9.0 Neutrophils abs (2–7 × 109/L) 5.8 4.2 8,9 7,3 8.4 6.4 4.3 4.6 6.9 Lymphocytes abs (1–3 × 109/L) 0.6 1.2 0,4 0,2 0.6 1.1 1.3 1.2 1.4 Neutrophil: Lymphocyte ratio 9.6 3.5 22,3 36,5 14.0 5.8 3.3 3.8 5.1 CRP (0–10 mg/L) 56 73 98 169 94 43 22 12 4 PCT (0–0.05 ng/L) 0,05 0,04 0.03 0.02 0.04 Ferritin (22–275 μg/L 1900 1951 1164 LDH (125–220 U/L) 185 161 340 259 235 D-Dimer (0–0.225 mg/L) 0,37 1,11 0.85 0.86 0.66 Pro-BNP`(<125 ng/L) 338 297 173 115 98 SARS-CoV-2 Detected Not detected ↑ ↑ Tocilizumab Tocilizumab Arrows indicate treatment with tocilizumab 400 mg IV. Over the next 5 days his clinical condition worsened despite antiviral therapy. His biomarkers, including lymphopaenia, CRP, pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (Pro-BNP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), D-dimers and ferritin all increased significantly (Table 1). His hypoxaemia worsened and he had increased bilateral chest infiltrates on follow-up radiology (Figure 1). His PaO2:FiO2 ratio decreased to 250. He was diagnosed as having Covid-19 hyperinflammatory syndrome, CRS and ARDS. After a discussion with the team he was treated with tocilizumab 800 mg IV, given as two doses of 400 mg 24 h apart on 23 and 24 March, as well as methylprednisolone 40 mg IV daily for 5 days. Chloroquine dose was reduced, and azithromycin and lopinavir/ritonavir were discontinued in view of QT prolongation (QTc > 500 ms). Within 24 h following the tocilizumab infusion, there was an improvement in his fever, biomarkers (Table 1) and hypoxaemia. Mechanical ventilation was avoided and he was monitored for another 6 day in the isolation unit. His saturations on room air improved to 90%. He was discharged home on 27 March, where he continued to make an uneventful recovery. Follow-up blood tests as an outpatient showed normalization of his lymphocyte count and CRP (Table 1). His saturations on room air improved to 92%. A repeat nasopharyngeal and throat swab test for Covid-19 on 31 March was negative. Fig 1: Portable chest radiographs on 17 and 20 March 2020 showing progressive bilateral pulmonary infiltrates DISCUSSION It has been postulated that there are three distinct but overlapping phases and pathological subsets of Covid-19 infection and subsequent Covid-19 disease in humans, the first two triggered by the virus itself and the third, by the host response.(6) Treatment recommendations differ depending on the stage of the Covid-19 disease: the viral response phase (about 1–6 days after start of symptoms), the pneumonic phase (about days 6–10) which may progress to acute lung injury and ARDS, and the hyperinflammatory phase which typically occurs after day 8 in a minority of patients. This last phase is associated with worsening ARDS, multi-organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS), coagulation abnormalities, myocarditis and death. Patients progressing to this last severe phase of Covid-19 have clinical and laboratory evidence of an exaggerated inflammatory response, similar to the CRS, with persistent fever, worsening ARDS, elevated inflammatory markers and proinflammatory cytokines and MODS. The Covid-19 virus binds to alveolar epithelial cells, activating the innate and adaptive immune systems resulting in the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. This can lead to the CRS which is characterised by a hyperinflammatory state with raised inflammatory cytokines and biomarkers such as interleukin (IL)-2, IL-6, IL-7, granulocyte-colony stimulating factor, macrophage inflammatory protein 1-α, tumour necrosis factor-α, CRP, ferritin, Pro-BNP and D-dimer.(7) The clinical picture is one of progressive ARDS and fulminant MODS. Although corticosteroids are not routinely recommended for the treatment of Covid-19-associated lung injury, CRS immunosuppression with corticosteroids and other therapies is likely to be beneficial. Although there are currently no controlled clinical trials on the use of corticosteroids in Covid-19 patients, several published reports of corticosteroid therapy in severe Covid-19 have shown a shorter duration of supplemental oxygen use, improved radiographic findings and lower mortality in patients with ARDS.(8,9) Tocilizumab, an IL-6 receptor blocker registered for CRS treatment, is being investigated for the treatment of patients with severe Covid-19, CRS and elevated IL-6 levels. IL-6 plays an important role in CRS and tocilizumab binds specifically to both soluble and membrane-bound IL-6 receptors (sIL-6R and mIL-6R), inhibiting sIL-6R and mIL-6R-mediated signalling. Small observational studies support the concept that tocilizumab may be an effective drug for patients with severe Covid-19 and respiratory failure requiring mechanical ventilation.(10,11) In a study of 21 patients with Covid-19-related ARDS who received tocilizumab, the ICU mortality was less than 5%, all surviving patients became apyrexial within 72 h, pulmonary infiltrates on follow-up CT scan improved in 90%, hypoxaemia resolved in the majority and 90.5% of patients were discharged from the ICU after a median of 13.5 days.(12) A large randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 clinical trial to evaluate the safety and efficacy of tocilizumab plus standard of care in hospitalised adult patients with severe Covid-19 pneumonia and ARDS has been being initiated.(13) Currently, tocilizumab is available in South Africa for patients with severe Covid-19 and ARDS under the Monitored Emergency use of Unregistered and Investigational Interventions framework.(14) This requires the treating physician to consult with an expert panel prior to enrolment, detailed patient data collection and ensuring that the patient meets the strict inclusion and exclusion criteria. Other immune modulating agents under investigation include siltuximab (IL-6 inhibitor), bevacizumab (vascular endothelial growth factor inhibitor), convalescent plasma from patients who have recovered from SARS-CoV-2 infection and intravenous immune globulin (Polygam).(15,16) This case study also highlights some of the many controversies and complications in managing patients with severe Covid-19: • The use of inhaled or oral corticosteroids as a risk factor for severe Covid-19 is not certain. Individuals taking long-term corticosteroids for chronic conditions such as asthma, allergies and arthritis may be unable to mount an appropriate immune response and are generally considered high risk for severe disease if infected with Covid-19.(17) Corticosteroids can also result in increased viral replication and prolonged viral shedding. Even a short course of oral corticosteroids in the preceding month for an asthma exacerbation, such as in this case study, is a risk factor for ARDS and mechanical ventilation.(18) Conversely, in vitro studies with ciclesonide showed antiviral activity against Covid-19, and there have been reports of clinical effectiveness of inhaled ciclesonide in the treatment of Covid-19.(19) Studies are currently underway to investigate whether inhaled ciclesonide alone, or in combination with hydroxychloroquine, could eradicate SARS-CoV-2 from respiratory tract earlier in patients with mild Covid-19.(20) • Diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia is not always straightforward. Currently, the gold standard in clinical practice is the detection of Covid-19 RNA by RT-PCR in respiratory tract specimens. Nasopharyngeal and throat swabs are recommended over expectorated or induced sputum. Lower respiratory tract specimens, such as tracheal aspirates or bronchoalveolar lavage in intubated patients may have higher viral loads and be more likely to yield positive tests (up to 95% sensitive) but come with a higher risk of transmission of infection to health-care workers.(21) False-negative tests from upper respiratory specimens have been documented, as with this case study. If initial testing is negative in a patient with risk factors for infection and clinical or radiological features are highly suggestive of Covid-19 or determining the presence of infection is important for further management and infection control, repeat testing is recommended. • Chloroquine, azithromycin and lopinavir/ritonavir can all cause QT prolongation and ventricular arrhythmia, in particular drug-induced torsades de pointes and sudden cardiac death.(22) Patients treated with any combination of these drugs should have 12–24 hourly ECG with QTc monitoring. If QTc >500 ms (as in the case study), or QTc increases >60 ms from baseline after initiating drug therapy, discontinue azithromycin and lopinavir/ritonavir, and consider reducing dose of chloroquine. Frequent monitoring of QTc is mandatory and chloroquine should also be discontinued if QTc remains >500 ms. The risk of serious ventricular arrhythmia may be reduced by performing a screening ECG prior to initiation of therapy, inquiring about a personal or family history of QT interval prolongation or sudden unexplained cardiac death, avoiding exposure to other medications known to affect QT interval, and aggressively treating hypocalcaemia, hypokalaemia and hypomagnesaemia. Hypokalaemia is especially common in patients with Covid-19 and is associated with a poorer prognosis.(23) The correction of hypokalaemia can be challenging due to continuous renal loss of potassium resulting from the degradation of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 by binding of SAR-CoV-2. CONCLUSION This case study of severe Covid-19 pneumonia and CRS illustrates some of the diagnostic and therapeutic challenges and controversies regarding the management of this novel and complex infection. Meticulous monitoring for and early treatment of the hyperinflammatory phase of the disease may be crucial in preventing progression to severe ARDS, MODS and death.

Main article text

INTRODUCTION

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the novel coronavirus first detected in Wuhan, China, that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) and pneumonia. Covid-19 pneumonia is defined by a positive result for SARS-CoV-2 on a reverse-transcriptase–polymerase-chain-reaction (RT-PCR) assay of a specimen collected from the upper or lower respiratory tract together with radiological features of pneumonia and clinical features of hypoxaemia and dyspnoea. Although more than 80% of patients with Covid-19 infection have mild disease and make a full recovery, a significant proportion of patients progress to pneumonia, and about half of these cases will develop severe acute respiratory syndrome (ARDS). Initial reports from China suggested that age >65 years and medical comorbidities are risk factors for poor outcomes.(1) The need for ICU admission and mechanical ventilation once ARDS develops is associated with a high mortality, ranging from 39% to 72%.(2,3) Current guidelines recommend that corticosteroids or immunosuppressive therapy should not be used in patients with Covid-19 pneumonia unless there are other indications, such as shock, asthma or exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.(4) However, the role of systemic corticosteroids is currently being re-evaluated in mechanically ventilated adults with ARDS, with some guidelines now suggesting their use.(5)

We describe a case of a patient with Covid-19 infection, progressive pneumonia, development of a hyperinflammatory state and cytokine release syndrome (CRS) who was successfully treated with steroids and tocilizumab.

CASE REPORT

In January 2020, a 53-year-old gentleman with a background of asthma on long-term low dose inhaled corticosteroid inhaler had an acute exacerbation of his asthma in February 2020 triggered by a viral upper respiratory tract infection and acute sinusitis and was managed with bronchodilator nebulization and a 7-day course of oral prednisone 30 mg daily. He made an uneventful recovery and proceeded to travel to Austria on 29 February 2020. During his stay in Austria, he had contact with a Covid-19 positive individual and started developing upper respiratory symptoms on 7 March. On his return to South Africa on 8 March he had a fever, sore throat, dry cough, severe wheezing and worsening dyspnoea. At that stage a commercial test for Covid-19 PCR was not yet available to the private pathology laboratories and blood tests showed a normal full blood count and a C-reactive protein (CRP) of 16 mg/L. He was advised to self-isolate at home and was managed telephonically with bronchodilator nebulization, oral prednisone 30 mg daily for 5 days and paracetamol. By 11 March he was not feeling any better and had ongoing fever and cough. The Covid-19 PCR test had become available at that stage and his initial test with a private pathology laboratory was negative.

Over the next 3 days his symptoms worsened, and on 16 March he was admitted to hospital to an isolation ward where blood tests showed a lymphopaenia and a rising CRP (Table 1). A high-resolution CT scan of his chest showed bilateral asymmetrical peripheral ground glass infiltrates in a subsegmental distribution, particularly in the lower zones. A repeat Covid-19 PCR swab on this occasion was positive and he was diagnosed with Covid-19 pneumonia. His oxygen saturation was 86% on room air. He was haemodynamically stable and was kept in strict isolation, and treatment was commenced with supplemental oxygen via a nasal cannula, paracetamol, chloroquine, azithromycin and lopinavir/ritonavir. In keeping with national and international guidelines recommending against the use of systemic corticosteroids, prednisone was discontinued.

Table 2:

Laboratory and pathology results during hospital admission and post discharge

	Date
	2020-03-16	2020-03-17	2020-03-21	2020-03-23	2020-03-24	2020-03-25	2020-03-26	2020-03-27	2020-03-31
Laboratory marker
White cell count (4–10 × 109/L)	7.0	6.1	9,6	7,6	9.5	8.1	6.3	6.6	9.0
Neutrophils abs (2–7 × 109/L)	5.8	4.2	8,9	7,3	8.4	6.4	4.3	4.6	6.9
Lymphocytes abs (1–3 × 109/L)	0.6	1.2	0,4	0,2	0.6	1.1	1.3	1.2	1.4
Neutrophil: Lymphocyte ratio	9.6	3.5	22,3	36,5	14.0	5.8	3.3	3.8	5.1
CRP (0–10 mg/L)	56	73	98	169	94	43	22	12	4
PCT (0–0.05 ng/L)			0,05	0,04	0.03	0.02		0.04
Ferritin (22–275 μg/L				1900	1951	1164
LDH (125–220 U/L)	185	161	340		259	235
D-Dimer (0–0.225 mg/L)		0,37	1,11	0.85	0.86	0.66
Pro-BNP`(<125 ng/L)			338	297	173	115		98
SARS-CoV-2	Detected								Not detected
					
				Tocilizumab	Tocilizumab

Arrows indicate treatment with tocilizumab 400 mg IV.

Over the next 5 days his clinical condition worsened despite antiviral therapy. His biomarkers, including lymphopaenia, CRP, pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (Pro-BNP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), D-dimers and ferritin all increased significantly (Table 1). His hypoxaemia worsened and he had increased bilateral chest infiltrates on follow-up radiology (Figure 1). His PaO2:FiO2 ratio decreased to 250. He was diagnosed as having Covid-19 hyperinflammatory syndrome, CRS and ARDS. After a discussion with the team he was treated with tocilizumab 800 mg IV, given as two doses of 400 mg 24 h apart on 23 and 24 March, as well as methylprednisolone 40 mg IV daily for 5 days. Chloroquine dose was reduced, and azithromycin and lopinavir/ritonavir were discontinued in view of QT prolongation (QTc > 500 ms).

Within 24 h following the tocilizumab infusion, there was an improvement in his fever, biomarkers (Table 1) and hypoxaemia. Mechanical ventilation was avoided and he was monitored for another 6 day in the isolation unit. His saturations on room air improved to 90%. He was discharged home on 27 March, where he continued to make an uneventful recovery. Follow-up blood tests as an outpatient showed normalization of his lymphocyte count and CRP (Table 1). His saturations on room air improved to 92%. A repeat nasopharyngeal and throat swab test for Covid-19 on 31 March was negative.

Fig 1:

Portable chest radiographs on 17 and 20 March 2020 showing progressive bilateral pulmonary infiltrates

DISCUSSION

It has been postulated that there are three distinct but overlapping phases and pathological subsets of Covid-19 infection and subsequent Covid-19 disease in humans, the first two triggered by the virus itself and the third, by the host response.(6) Treatment recommendations differ depending on the stage of the Covid-19 disease: the viral response phase (about 1–6 days after start of symptoms), the pneumonic phase (about days 6–10) which may progress to acute lung injury and ARDS, and the hyperinflammatory phase which typically occurs after day 8 in a minority of patients. This last phase is associated with worsening ARDS, multi- organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS), coagulation abnormalities, myocarditis and death. Patients progressing to this last severe phase of Covid-19 have clinical and laboratory evidence of an exaggerated inflammatory response, similar to the CRS, with persistent fever, worsening ARDS, elevated inflammatory markers and proinflammatory cytokines and MODS.

The Covid-19 virus binds to alveolar epithelial cells, activating the innate and adaptive immune systems resulting in the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. This can lead to the CRS which is characterised by a hyperinflammatory state with raised inflammatory cytokines and biomarkers such as interleukin (IL)-2, IL-6, IL-7, granulocyte-colony stimulating factor, macrophage inflammatory protein 1-, tumour necrosis factor-α, CRP, ferritin, Pro-BNP and D-dimer.(7) The clinical picture is one of progressive ARDS and fulminant MODS.

Although corticosteroids are not routinely recommended for the treatment of Covid-19-associated lung injury, CRS immunosuppression with corticosteroids and other therapies is likely to be beneficial. Although there are currently no controlled clinical trials on the use of corticosteroids in Covid-19 patients, several published reports of corticosteroid therapy in severe Covid-19 have shown a shorter duration of supplemental oxygen use, improved radiographic findings and lower mortality in patients with ARDS.(8,9)

Tocilizumab, an IL-6 receptor blocker registered for CRS treatment, is being investigated for the treatment of patients with severe Covid-19, CRS and elevated IL-6 levels. IL-6 plays an important role in CRS and tocilizumab binds specifically to both soluble and membrane-bound IL-6 receptors (sIL-6R and mIL-6R), inhibiting sIL-6R and mIL-6R-mediated signalling. Small observational studies support the concept that tocilizumab may be an effective drug for patients with severe Covid-19 and respiratory failure requiring mechanical ventilation.(10,11) In a study of 21 patients with Covid-19-related ARDS who received tocilizumab, the ICU mortality was less than 5%, all surviving patients became apyrexial within 72 h, pulmonary infiltrates on follow-up CT scan improved in 90%, hypoxaemia resolved in the majority and 90.5% of patients were discharged from the ICU after a median of 13.5 days.(12) A large randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 clinical trial to evaluate the safety and efficacy of tocilizumab plus standard of care in hospitalised adult patients with severe Covid-19 pneumonia and ARDS has been being initiated.(13)

Currently, tocilizumab is available in South Africa for patients with severe Covid-19 and ARDS under the Monitored Emergency use of Unregistered and Investigational Interventions framework.(14) This requires the treating physician to consult with an expert panel prior to enrolment, detailed patient data collection and ensuring that the patient meets the strict inclusion and exclusion criteria. Other immune modulating agents under investigation include siltuximab (IL-6 inhibitor), bevacizumab (vascular endothelial growth factor inhibitor), convalescent plasma from patients who have recovered from SARS-CoV-2 infection and intravenous immune globulin (Polygam).(15,16)

This case study also highlights some of the many controversies and complications in managing patients with severe Covid-19:

• •

  The use of inhaled or oral corticosteroids as a risk factor for severe Covid-19 is not certain. Individuals taking long-term corticosteroids for chronic conditions such as asthma, allergies and arthritis may be unable to mount an appropriate immune response and are generally considered high risk for severe disease if infected with Covid-19.(17) Corticosteroids can also result in increased viral replication and prolonged viral shedding. Even a short course of oral corticosteroids in the preceding month for an asthma exacerbation, such as in this case study, is a risk factor for ARDS and mechanical ventilation.(18) Conversely, in vitro studies with ciclesonide showed antiviral activity against Covid-19, and there have been reports of clinical effectiveness of inhaled ciclesonide in the treatment of Covid-19.(19) Studies are currently underway to investigate whether inhaled ciclesonide alone, or in combination with hydroxychloroquine, could eradicate SARS-CoV-2 from respiratory tract earlier in patients with mild Covid-19.(20)

• •

  Diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia is not always straightforward. Currently, the gold standard in clinical practice is the detection of Covid-19 RNA by RT-PCR in respiratory tract specimens. Nasopharyngeal and throat swabs are recommended over expectorated or induced sputum. Lower respiratory tract specimens, such as tracheal aspirates or bronchoalveolar lavage in intubated patients may have higher viral loads and be more likely to yield positive tests (up to 95% sensitive) but come with a higher risk of transmission of infection to health-care workers.(21) False-negative tests from upper respiratory specimens have been documented, as with this case study. If initial testing is negative in a patient with risk factors for infection and clinical or radiological features are highly suggestive of Covid-19 or determining the presence of infection is important for further management and infection control, repeat testing is recommended.

• •

  Chloroquine, azithromycin and lopinavir/ritonavir can all cause QT prolongation and ventricular arrhythmia, in particular drug-induced torsades de pointes and sudden cardiac death.(22) Patients treated with any combination of these drugs should have 12–24 hourly ECG with QTc monitoring. If QTc >500 ms (as in the case study), or QTc increases >60 ms from baseline after initiating drug therapy, discontinue azithromycin and lopinavir/ritonavir, and consider reducing dose of chloroquine. Frequent monitoring of QTc is mandatory and chloroquine should also be discontinued if QTc remains >500 ms. The risk of serious ventricular arrhythmia may be reduced by performing a screening ECG prior to initiation of therapy, inquiring about a personal or family history of QT interval prolongation or sudden unexplained cardiac death, avoiding exposure to other medications known to affect QT interval, and aggressively treating hypocalcaemia, hypokalaemia and hypomagnesaemia. Hypokalaemia is especially common in patients with Covid-19 and is associated with a poorer prognosis.(23) The correction of hypokalaemia can be challenging due to continuous renal loss of potassium resulting from the degradation of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 by binding of SAR-CoV-2.

CONCLUSION

This case study of severe Covid-19 pneumonia and CRS illustrates some of the diagnostic and therapeutic challenges and controversies regarding the management of this novel and complex infection. Meticulous monitoring for and early treatment of the hyperinflammatory phase of the disease may be crucial in preventing progression to severe ARDS, MODS and death.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr L. Brannigan for his assistance with the management of this patient, and Dr E. Boschoff for the radiographs.

REFERENCES

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