Globalisation from below: conceptualising the role of the African diasporas in africa&apos;s development

Mohan, Giles; Zack‐Williams, A. B.

doi:10.1080/03056240208704610

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Review of African Political Economy

Volume 29, Issue 92

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Globalisation from below: conceptualising the role of the African diasporas in africa's development

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Author(s): Giles Mohan ^a , A B Zack‐Williams ^b

Publication date (Print): June 2002

Journal: Review of African Political Economy

Publisher: Review of African Political Economy

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Journal ID (publisher-id): crea20

Journal ID (archive): CREA

Title: Review of African Political Economy

Publisher: Review of African Political Economy

ISSN (Print): 0305-6244

ISSN (Electronic): 1740-1720

Publication date (Print): June 2002

Volume: 29

Issue: 92

Pages: 211-236

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^a Development Policy & Practice Discipline , Open University , Milton Keynes , UK E-mail: g.mohan@ 123456open.ac.uk.

^b Professor in the Department of Education and Social Studies , University of Central Lancashire , Preston , UK E-mail: abzw@ 123456uclan.ac.uk

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Publisher ID: 8704610 Coden ID: Review of African Political Economy, Vol. 29, No. 92, June 2002, pp. 211-236

DOI: 10.1080/03056240208704610

SO-VID: a70a53df-0531-4640-8064-5e3295f8420d

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Figures: 0, Tables: 0, References: 78, Pages: 26

Bibliography

Ackah W. . 1999. . Pan‐Africanism: Exploring the Contradictions . , Aldershot : : Ashgate. .
African Foundation for Development (AFFORD). . 2000. . “‘Globalisation and development: a diaspora dimension’. ”. London : : AFFORD. .
Ahmad A. . 1992. . In Theory: classes, nations, literatures . , London : : Verso. .
Akyeampong E. . 2000. . ‘Africans in the Diaspora: The Diaspora and Africa’. . African Affairs . , Vol. 99:: 183––215. .
Al‐Ali N, Black R and Koser K. . 1999. . “‘Mobilisation and Participation of Transnational Exile Communities in Post‐Conflict Reconstruction’. ”. UK: : ESRC. .
Amin S. . 1976. . Imperialism and Unequal Development . , Harvester : : Hassocks. .
Ammassari S and Black R. . July. 2001 . “‘Harnessing the Potential of Migration and Return to Promote Development: Applying Concepts to West Africa’. ”. July. , University of Sussex. .
Anderson B. . 1991. . Imagined Communities: Reflections on the origins and spread of nationalism . , London : : Verso. .
Appiah K. . 1991. . ‘Is the Post‐ in Postmodernism the Post‐ in Postcolonial?’. . Critical Inquiry . , Vol. 17:: 336––357. .
1992. . My Father's House: Africa in the Philosophy of Culture . , New York/London : : Oxford University Press. .
Arthur J. . 2000. . Invisible Sojourners: African Immigrant Diaspora in the United States . , Westport , Connecticut : : Praeger. .
Brah A. . 1996. . Cartographies of diaspora: contesting identities . , London : : Routledge. .
Byfield J. . 2000. . ‘Introduction: Rethinking the African Diaspora’. . African Studies Review (Special Issue on the Diaspora) . , Vol. 43((1)): 1––9. .
Campbell A. . 1997. . Western Primitivism: African Ethnicity . , London : : Cassell. .
Chabal P and Daloz J‐P. . 1999. . Africa Works: Disorder as a Political Instrument . , Oxford : : James Currey. .
Chikezie‐Fergusson P. . 2000. . ‘Africans help their homelands’. . West Africa . , 13–19th November;: 12––14. .
Clifford J. . 1994. . ‘Diasporas’. . Cultural Anthropology . , Vol. 9((3)): 302––338. .
Cohen R. . 1997. . Global Diasporas: An Introduction . , London : : UCL Press. .
Cooke B. . 2001. . “‘From Colonial Administration to Development Management’. ”. (IDPM Discussion Paper Series, No. 63). University of Manchester, IDPM. .
Cullen K. . 1998. . ‘America and the conflict’. . Frontline: the IRA and Sinn Fein . ,
Curtin P. . 1984. . Cross‐cultural trade in world history . , Cambridge : : Cambridge University Press. .
Dirlik A. . 1994. . ‘The Postcolonial Aura: Third World Criticism in the Age of Global Capitalism’. . Critical Inquiry . , Vol. 20((2)): 328––356. .
1997. . ‘Critical Reflections on “Chinese Capitalism” as Paradigm’. . Identities . , Vol. 3((3)): 303––30. .
Durand J, Parado E and Massey D. . 1996. . ‘Migradollars and Development: A Reconsideration of the Mexican Case’. . International Migration Review . , Vol. 30((2)): 423––444. .
Eceheruo M. . 1999. . “‘An African Diaspora: The Ontological Project’. ”. In The African Diaspora: African origins and new world identities . , Edited by: Okpewho I, Davies C and Mazrui A. . Bloomington : : Indiana University Press. .
D Elazar (no date), ‘Israel‐Diaspora Relations and the Peace Process’ , Jerusalem Centre for Public Affairs
Escobar A. . 1995. . Encountering Development: the making and unmaking of the Third World . , Princeton : : Princeton University Press. .
Fuglerud O. . 1999. . Life on the Outside: The Tamil Diasporaand Long Distance Nationalism . , London : : Pluto Press. .
Fryer P. . 1984. . Staying Power: The History of Black People in Britain . , London : : Pluto Press. .
Fyfe C. . 1999. . “‘The Emergence and Evolution of African Studies in the United Kingdom’. ”. In Out of One, Many Africas . , Edited by: Martin W and West M. . p. 54––61. . Chicago : : University of Illinois Press. .
Gifford P. . 1991. . ‘Christian Fundamentalism and Development’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 52:: 9––20. .
Gilroy P. . 1987. . There Ain't No Black in the Union Jack: The cultural politics of race and nation . , London : : Unwin Hyman. .
1993a. . Small Acts: Thoughts on the Politics of Black Cultures . , London : : Serpent's Tail. .
1993b. . The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness . , London : : Verso. .
2000. . Between Camps: nations, cultures and the allure of race . , London : : Penguin Books. .
Godleswska A and Smith N. . 1994. . Geography and Empire . , Oxford : : Blackwell. .
Goss J. . 1996. . ‘Postcolonialism: subverting whose empire?’. . Third World Quarterly . , Vol. 17((2)): 239––250. .
Guha R. . 1982. . “‘On Some Aspects of the Historiography of Colonial India’. ”. In Subaltern Studies . , Edited by: Guha R. . Vol. Volume 1. , p. 1––8. . Oxford/New Delhi : : Oxford University Press. .
Hall S. . 1990. . “‘Cultural Identity and Diaspora’. ”. In Identity: Community, Culture, Difference . , Edited by: Rutherford J. . p. 222––237. . London : : Lawrence and Wishart. .
Harris J. . 1982. . “‘Introduction’. ”. In Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora . , Edited by: Harris J. . Washington, DC : : Howard University Press. .
Harris J. and Todaro M. . 1970. . ‘Mining, Unemployment and Development: A Two‐Sector Analysis’. . American Economic Review . , Vol. 60:
Haynes J. . 1995. . ‘Popular religion and politics in sub‐Saharan Africa’. . Third World Quarterly . , Vol. 16((1)): 89––108. .
Honey R and Okafor S. . 1998. . Hometown Associations: Indigenous knowledge and development in Nigeria . , London : : Intermediate Technology Publications. .
Howe S. . 1998. . Afrocentrism: Mythical Pasts and Imagined Homes . , London : : Verso. .
Johnson‐Odim C. . 2000. . ‘"Unfinished Migrations”: Commentary and Response’. . African Studies Review (Special Issue on the Diaspora) . , Vol. 43((1)): 51––53. .
Kahn H. . 1979. . World Economic Development: 1979 and Beyond . , New York : : Morrow Quill. .
Khapre S. . 28 August. 2000 . “‘BJP pledges to strengthen bond with NRIs’. ”. 28 August. ,
Lavie S and Swedenburg T. . 1996. . Displacement, Diaspora and Geographies of Identity . , Durham , North Carolina : : Duke University Press. .
Loomba A. . 1998. . Colonialism/Post‐colonialism . , London : : Routledge. .
MacGaffey J and Bazenguissa‐Ganga R. . 2000. . Congo‐Paris: Transnational traders on the margins of the law . , Oxford : : James Currey. .
Magubane B. . 1987. . The Ties That Bind: African‐American Consciousness of Africa . , Trenton , NJ : : Africa World Press. .
Marshall R. . 1991. . ‘Power in the Name of Jesus’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 52:: 21––37. .
Martin W. . 1998. . ‘Waiting for Oprah and the New US Constituency for Africa’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 75:: 9––24. .
Mbembe A. . 1991. . “‘Power and Obscenity in the Post‐Colonial Period: The Case of Cameroon’. ”. In Rethinking Third World Politics . , Edited by: Manor J. . London : : Longman. .
Mitchell K. . 1997. . ‘Different diasporas and the hype of hybridity’. . Environment and Planning D: Society and Space . , Vol. 15:: 533––553. .
Mohan G. . 2002. . “‘Diaspora and Development’. ”. In Development and Displacement . , Edited by: Robinson J. . Oxford : : Oxford University Press. .
Ndofor‐Tah C. . 2000. . “‘Diaspora and development: Contributions by African organisations in the UK to Africa's development’. ”. London : : AFFORD. .
Okpewho I. . 1999. . “‘Introduction’. ”. In The African Diaspora: African origins and new world identities . , Edited by: Okpewho I, Davies C and Mazrui A. . Bloomington : : Indiana University Press. .
Ong A. . 1993. . ‘On the Edge of Empires: Flexible Citizenship among Chinese in Diaspora’. . Positions . , Vol. 1((3)): 745––78. .
Paolini A. . 1997. . ‘The Place of Africa in Discourses about the Postcolonial, the Global and the Modern’. . New Formations . , Vol. 31:: 83––106. .
Papastergiadis N. . 2000. . The Turbulence of Migration: Globalization, Deterritoriali‐zation and Hybridity . , Cambridge : : Polity Press. .
Patterson T and Kelley R. . 2000. . ‘Unfinished Migrations: Reflections on the African Diaspora and the Making of the Modern World’. . African Studies Review (Special Issue on the Diaspora) . , Vol. 43((1)): 11––45. .
Phillips A. . 1977. . ‘The Concept of “Development’’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 8:: 7––21. .
A Portes ( 1997 ), ‘Globalization from Below: The Rise of Transnational Communities’ , ESRC Transnational Communities Project
Portes A and Jensen L. . 1987. . ‘What's an ethnic enclave? The case for conceptual clarity’. . American Sociological Review . , Vol. 52:: 768––771. .
Portes A and Sensenbrenner J. . 1993. . ‘Embeddedness and Immigration: Notes on the Social Determinants of Economic Action’. . American Journal of Sociology . , Vol. 98((6)): 1320––50. .
Prashad V. . 2000. . ‘Afro‐Dalits of the Earth, Unite!’. . African Studies Review (Special Issue on the Diaspora) . , Vol. 43((1)): 189––201. .
Safran W. . 1991. . ‘Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return’. . Diaspora . , Vol. 1:: 83––99. .
R Segal ( 1998 ), ‘Globalisation and the Black Diaspora’ , ESRC Transnational Communities Project
Trager L. . 2001. . Yoruba Hometowns: Community, Identity and Development in Nigeria . , Boulder : : Lynne Rienner. .
Van der Veer P. . 1995. . “‘Introduction: The Diasporic Imagination’. ”. In Nation and Migration: The politics of space in the South Asian diaspora . , Edited by: van der Veer P. . p. 1––16. . Philadelphia : : University of Pennsylvania Press. .
Waldinger R. . 1995. . ‘The “other side” of embeddedness: a case‐study of the interplay of economy and ethnicity’. . Ethnic and Racial Studies . , Vol. 18((3)): 555––580. .
Wallerstein I. . 1979. . The Capitalist World Economy . , Cambridge : : Cambridge University Press. .
Wamba P. . 1999. . Kinship: A Family's Journey in Africa and America . , New York : : Plume. .
West M. . 2000. . ‘"Unfinished Migrations”: Commentary and Response’. . African Studies Review (Special Issue on the Diaspora) . , Vol. 43((1)): 61––64. .
West M and Martin W. . 1999. . “‘Introduction: The Rival Africas and Paradigms of Africanists and Africans at Home and Abroad’. ”. In Out of One, Many Africas . , Edited by: Martin W and West M. . p. 1––36. . Chicago : : University of Illinois Press. .
Zack‐Williams A. . 1990. . Sierra Leone: Crisis and Despair’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 49:: 22––33. .
1995. . ‘African Development and African Diaspora: Separate concerns?’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 65:: 49––358. .

Comments

Comment on this article

[1] Ackah W. . 1999. . Pan‐Africanism: Exploring the Contradictions . , Aldershot : : Ashgate. .

[2] African Foundation for Development (AFFORD). . 2000. . “‘Globalisation and development: a diaspora dimension’. ”. London : : AFFORD. .

[3] Ahmad A. . 1992. . In Theory: classes, nations, literatures . , London : : Verso. .

[4] Akyeampong E. . 2000. . ‘Africans in the Diaspora: The Diaspora and Africa’. . African Affairs . , Vol. 99:: 183––215. .

[5] Al‐Ali N, Black R and Koser K. . 1999. . “‘Mobilisation and Participation of Transnational Exile Communities in Post‐Conflict Reconstruction’. ”. UK: : ESRC. .

[6] Amin S. . 1976. . Imperialism and Unequal Development . , Harvester : : Hassocks. .

[7] Ammassari S and Black R. . July. 2001 . “‘Harnessing the Potential of Migration and Return to Promote Development: Applying Concepts to West Africa’. ”. July. , University of Sussex. .

[8] Anderson B. . 1991. . Imagined Communities: Reflections on the origins and spread of nationalism . , London : : Verso. .

[9] Appiah K. . 1991. . ‘Is the Post‐ in Postmodernism the Post‐ in Postcolonial?’. . Critical Inquiry . , Vol. 17:: 336––357. .

[10] 1992. . My Father's House: Africa in the Philosophy of Culture . , New York/London : : Oxford University Press. .

[11] Arthur J. . 2000. . Invisible Sojourners: African Immigrant Diaspora in the United States . , Westport , Connecticut : : Praeger. .

[12] Brah A. . 1996. . Cartographies of diaspora: contesting identities . , London : : Routledge. .

[13] Byfield J. . 2000. . ‘Introduction: Rethinking the African Diaspora’. . African Studies Review (Special Issue on the Diaspora) . , Vol. 43((1)): 1––9. .

[14] Campbell A. . 1997. . Western Primitivism: African Ethnicity . , London : : Cassell. .

[15] Chabal P and Daloz J‐P. . 1999. . Africa Works: Disorder as a Political Instrument . , Oxford : : James Currey. .

[16] Chikezie‐Fergusson P. . 2000. . ‘Africans help their homelands’. . West Africa . , 13–19th November;: 12––14. .

[17] Clifford J. . 1994. . ‘Diasporas’. . Cultural Anthropology . , Vol. 9((3)): 302––338. .

[18] Cohen R. . 1997. . Global Diasporas: An Introduction . , London : : UCL Press. .

[19] Cooke B. . 2001. . “‘From Colonial Administration to Development Management’. ”. (IDPM Discussion Paper Series, No. 63). University of Manchester, IDPM. .

[20] Cullen K. . 1998. . ‘America and the conflict’. . Frontline: the IRA and Sinn Fein . ,

[21] Curtin P. . 1984. . Cross‐cultural trade in world history . , Cambridge : : Cambridge University Press. .

[22] Dirlik A. . 1994. . ‘The Postcolonial Aura: Third World Criticism in the Age of Global Capitalism’. . Critical Inquiry . , Vol. 20((2)): 328––356. .

[23] 1997. . ‘Critical Reflections on “Chinese Capitalism” as Paradigm’. . Identities . , Vol. 3((3)): 303––30. .

[24] Durand J, Parado E and Massey D. . 1996. . ‘Migradollars and Development: A Reconsideration of the Mexican Case’. . International Migration Review . , Vol. 30((2)): 423––444. .

[25] Eceheruo M. . 1999. . “‘An African Diaspora: The Ontological Project’. ”. In The African Diaspora: African origins and new world identities . , Edited by: Okpewho I, Davies C and Mazrui A. . Bloomington : : Indiana University Press. .

[26] D Elazar (no date), ‘Israel‐Diaspora Relations and the Peace Process’ , Jerusalem Centre for Public Affairs

[27] Escobar A. . 1995. . Encountering Development: the making and unmaking of the Third World . , Princeton : : Princeton University Press. .

[28] Fuglerud O. . 1999. . Life on the Outside: The Tamil Diasporaand Long Distance Nationalism . , London : : Pluto Press. .

[29] Fryer P. . 1984. . Staying Power: The History of Black People in Britain . , London : : Pluto Press. .

[30] Fyfe C. . 1999. . “‘The Emergence and Evolution of African Studies in the United Kingdom’. ”. In Out of One, Many Africas . , Edited by: Martin W and West M. . p. 54––61. . Chicago : : University of Illinois Press. .

[31] Gifford P. . 1991. . ‘Christian Fundamentalism and Development’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 52:: 9––20. .

[32] Gilroy P. . 1987. . There Ain't No Black in the Union Jack: The cultural politics of race and nation . , London : : Unwin Hyman. .

[33] 1993a. . Small Acts: Thoughts on the Politics of Black Cultures . , London : : Serpent's Tail. .

[34] 1993b. . The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness . , London : : Verso. .

[35] 2000. . Between Camps: nations, cultures and the allure of race . , London : : Penguin Books. .

[36] Godleswska A and Smith N. . 1994. . Geography and Empire . , Oxford : : Blackwell. .

[37] Goss J. . 1996. . ‘Postcolonialism: subverting whose empire?’. . Third World Quarterly . , Vol. 17((2)): 239––250. .

[38] Guha R. . 1982. . “‘On Some Aspects of the Historiography of Colonial India’. ”. In Subaltern Studies . , Edited by: Guha R. . Vol. Volume 1. , p. 1––8. . Oxford/New Delhi : : Oxford University Press. .

[39] Hall S. . 1990. . “‘Cultural Identity and Diaspora’. ”. In Identity: Community, Culture, Difference . , Edited by: Rutherford J. . p. 222––237. . London : : Lawrence and Wishart. .

[40] Harris J. . 1982. . “‘Introduction’. ”. In Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora . , Edited by: Harris J. . Washington, DC : : Howard University Press. .

[41] Harris J. and Todaro M. . 1970. . ‘Mining, Unemployment and Development: A Two‐Sector Analysis’. . American Economic Review . , Vol. 60:

[42] Haynes J. . 1995. . ‘Popular religion and politics in sub‐Saharan Africa’. . Third World Quarterly . , Vol. 16((1)): 89––108. .

[43] Honey R and Okafor S. . 1998. . Hometown Associations: Indigenous knowledge and development in Nigeria . , London : : Intermediate Technology Publications. .

[44] Howe S. . 1998. . Afrocentrism: Mythical Pasts and Imagined Homes . , London : : Verso. .

[45] Johnson‐Odim C. . 2000. . ‘"Unfinished Migrations”: Commentary and Response’. . African Studies Review (Special Issue on the Diaspora) . , Vol. 43((1)): 51––53. .

[46] Kahn H. . 1979. . World Economic Development: 1979 and Beyond . , New York : : Morrow Quill. .

[47] Khapre S. . 28 August. 2000 . “‘BJP pledges to strengthen bond with NRIs’. ”. 28 August. ,

[48] Lavie S and Swedenburg T. . 1996. . Displacement, Diaspora and Geographies of Identity . , Durham , North Carolina : : Duke University Press. .

[49] Loomba A. . 1998. . Colonialism/Post‐colonialism . , London : : Routledge. .

[50] MacGaffey J and Bazenguissa‐Ganga R. . 2000. . Congo‐Paris: Transnational traders on the margins of the law . , Oxford : : James Currey. .

[51] Magubane B. . 1987. . The Ties That Bind: African‐American Consciousness of Africa . , Trenton , NJ : : Africa World Press. .

[52] Marshall R. . 1991. . ‘Power in the Name of Jesus’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 52:: 21––37. .

[53] Martin W. . 1998. . ‘Waiting for Oprah and the New US Constituency for Africa’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 75:: 9––24. .

[54] Mbembe A. . 1991. . “‘Power and Obscenity in the Post‐Colonial Period: The Case of Cameroon’. ”. In Rethinking Third World Politics . , Edited by: Manor J. . London : : Longman. .

[55] Mitchell K. . 1997. . ‘Different diasporas and the hype of hybridity’. . Environment and Planning D: Society and Space . , Vol. 15:: 533––553. .

[56] Mohan G. . 2002. . “‘Diaspora and Development’. ”. In Development and Displacement . , Edited by: Robinson J. . Oxford : : Oxford University Press. .

[57] Ndofor‐Tah C. . 2000. . “‘Diaspora and development: Contributions by African organisations in the UK to Africa's development’. ”. London : : AFFORD. .

[58] Okpewho I. . 1999. . “‘Introduction’. ”. In The African Diaspora: African origins and new world identities . , Edited by: Okpewho I, Davies C and Mazrui A. . Bloomington : : Indiana University Press. .

[59] Ong A. . 1993. . ‘On the Edge of Empires: Flexible Citizenship among Chinese in Diaspora’. . Positions . , Vol. 1((3)): 745––78. .

[60] Paolini A. . 1997. . ‘The Place of Africa in Discourses about the Postcolonial, the Global and the Modern’. . New Formations . , Vol. 31:: 83––106. .

[61] Papastergiadis N. . 2000. . The Turbulence of Migration: Globalization, Deterritoriali‐zation and Hybridity . , Cambridge : : Polity Press. .

[62] Patterson T and Kelley R. . 2000. . ‘Unfinished Migrations: Reflections on the African Diaspora and the Making of the Modern World’. . African Studies Review (Special Issue on the Diaspora) . , Vol. 43((1)): 11––45. .

[63] Phillips A. . 1977. . ‘The Concept of “Development’’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 8:: 7––21. .

[64] A Portes ( 1997 ), ‘Globalization from Below: The Rise of Transnational Communities’ , ESRC Transnational Communities Project

[65] Portes A and Jensen L. . 1987. . ‘What's an ethnic enclave? The case for conceptual clarity’. . American Sociological Review . , Vol. 52:: 768––771. .

[66] Portes A and Sensenbrenner J. . 1993. . ‘Embeddedness and Immigration: Notes on the Social Determinants of Economic Action’. . American Journal of Sociology . , Vol. 98((6)): 1320––50. .

[67] Prashad V. . 2000. . ‘Afro‐Dalits of the Earth, Unite!’. . African Studies Review (Special Issue on the Diaspora) . , Vol. 43((1)): 189––201. .

[68] Safran W. . 1991. . ‘Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return’. . Diaspora . , Vol. 1:: 83––99. .

[69] R Segal ( 1998 ), ‘Globalisation and the Black Diaspora’ , ESRC Transnational Communities Project

[70] Trager L. . 2001. . Yoruba Hometowns: Community, Identity and Development in Nigeria . , Boulder : : Lynne Rienner. .

[71] Van der Veer P. . 1995. . “‘Introduction: The Diasporic Imagination’. ”. In Nation and Migration: The politics of space in the South Asian diaspora . , Edited by: van der Veer P. . p. 1––16. . Philadelphia : : University of Pennsylvania Press. .

[72] Waldinger R. . 1995. . ‘The “other side” of embeddedness: a case‐study of the interplay of economy and ethnicity’. . Ethnic and Racial Studies . , Vol. 18((3)): 555––580. .

[73] Wallerstein I. . 1979. . The Capitalist World Economy . , Cambridge : : Cambridge University Press. .

[74] Wamba P. . 1999. . Kinship: A Family's Journey in Africa and America . , New York : : Plume. .

[75] West M. . 2000. . ‘"Unfinished Migrations”: Commentary and Response’. . African Studies Review (Special Issue on the Diaspora) . , Vol. 43((1)): 61––64. .

[76] West M and Martin W. . 1999. . “‘Introduction: The Rival Africas and Paradigms of Africanists and Africans at Home and Abroad’. ”. In Out of One, Many Africas . , Edited by: Martin W and West M. . p. 1––36. . Chicago : : University of Illinois Press. .

[77] Zack‐Williams A. . 1990. . Sierra Leone: Crisis and Despair’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 49:: 22––33. .

[78] 1995. . ‘African Development and African Diaspora: Separate concerns?’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 65:: 49––358. .