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      Physical Fitness, White Matter Volume and Academic Performance in Children: Findings From the ActiveBrains and FITKids2 Projects

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          Abstract

          Objectives: The aims of this study were (i) to examine the association between cardiorespiratory fitness and white matter volume and test whether those associations differ between normal-weight and overweight/obese children (ii) to analyze the association between other physical fitness components (i.e., motor and muscular) and white matter volume, and (iii) to examine whether the fitness-related associations in white matter volume were related to academic performance.

          Methods: Data came from two independent projects: ActiveBrains project ( n = 100; 10.0 ± 1.1 years; 100% overweight/obese; Spain) and FITKids2 project ( n = 242; 8.6 ± 0.5 years; 36% overweight/obese, United States). Cardiorespiratory fitness was assessed in both projects, and motor and muscular fitness were assessed in the ActiveBrains project. T1-weighted images were acquired with a 3.0 T S Magnetom Tim Trio system. Academic performance was assessed by standardized tests.

          Results: Cardiorespiratory fitness was associated with greater white matter volume in the ActiveBrain project ( P < 0.001, k = 177; inferior fronto-opercular gyrus and inferior temporal gyrus) and in the FITKids project ( P < 0.001, k = 117; inferior temporal gyrus, cingulate gyrus, middle occipital gyrus and fusiform gyrus) among overweight/obese children. However, no associations were found among normal-weight children in the FITKids project. In the ActiveBrains project, motor fitness was related to greater white matter volume ( P < 0.001, k = 173) in six regions, specifically, insular cortex, caudate, bilateral superior temporal gyrus and bilateral supramarginal gyrus; muscular fitness was associated with greater white matter volumes ( P < 0.001, k = 191) in two regions, particularly, the bilateral caudate and bilateral cerebellum IX. The white matter volume of six of these regions were related to academic performance, but after correcting for multiple comparisons, only the insular cortex remained significantly related to math calculations skills (β = 0.258; P < 0.005). In both projects, no brain regions showed a statistically significant negative association between any physical fitness component and white matter volume.

          Conclusion: Cardiorespiratory fitness may positively relate to white matter volume in overweight/obese children, and in turn, academic performance. In addition, motor and muscular fitness may also influence white matter volume coupled with better academic performance. From a public health perspective, implementing exercise interventions that combine aerobic, motor and muscular training to enhance physical fitness may benefit brain development and academic success.

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          Voxel-based morphometry--the methods.

          At its simplest, voxel-based morphometry (VBM) involves a voxel-wise comparison of the local concentration of gray matter between two groups of subjects. The procedure is relatively straightforward and involves spatially normalizing high-resolution images from all the subjects in the study into the same stereotactic space. This is followed by segmenting the gray matter from the spatially normalized images and smoothing the gray-matter segments. Voxel-wise parametric statistical tests which compare the smoothed gray-matter images from the two groups are performed. Corrections for multiple comparisons are made using the theory of Gaussian random fields. This paper describes the steps involved in VBM, with particular emphasis on segmenting gray matter from MR images with nonuniformity artifact. We provide evaluations of the assumptions that underpin the method, including the accuracy of the segmentation and the assumptions made about the statistical distribution of the data. Copyright 2000 Academic Press.
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            Field-based fitness assessment in young people: the ALPHA health-related fitness test battery for children and adolescents.

            The present study summarises the work developed by the ALPHA (Assessing Levels of Physical Activity) study and describes the procedures followed to select the tests included in the ALPHA health-related fitness test battery for children and adolescents. The authors reviewed physical fitness and health in youth findings from cross-sectional studies. The authors also performed three systematic reviews dealing with (1) the predictive validity of health-related fitness, (2) the criterion validity of field-based fitness tests and (3) the reliability of field-based fitness tests in youth. The authors also carried out 11-methodological studies to determine the criterion validity and the reliability of several field-based fitness tests for youth. Finally, the authors performed a study in the school setting to examine the reliability, feasibility and safety of the selected tests. The selected fitness tests were (1) the 20 m shuttle run test to assess cardiorespiratory fitness; (2) the handgrip strength and (3) standing broad jump to assess musculoskeletal fitness, and (4) body mass index, (5) skinfold thickness and (5) waist circumference to assess body composition. When there are time limits, the authors propose the high-priority ALPHA health-related fitness test battery, which comprises all the evidence-based fitness tests except the measurement of the skinfold thickness. The time required to administer this battery to a group of 20 youth by one physical education teacher is less than 2 h. In conclusion, the ALPHA fitness tests battery is valid, reliable, feasible and safe for the assessment of health-related physical fitness in children and adolescents to be used for health monitoring purposes at population level.
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              A neuroimaging investigation of the association between aerobic fitness, hippocampal volume, and memory performance in preadolescent children.

              Because children are becoming overweight, unhealthy, and unfit, understanding the neurocognitive benefits of an active lifestyle in childhood has important public health and educational implications. Animal research has indicated that aerobic exercise is related to increased cell proliferation and survival in the hippocampus as well as enhanced hippocampal-dependent learning and memory. Recent evidence extends this relationship to elderly humans by suggesting that high aerobic fitness levels in older adults are associated with increased hippocampal volume and superior memory performance. The present study aimed to further extend the link between fitness, hippocampal volume, and memory to a sample of preadolescent children. To this end, magnetic resonance imaging was employed to investigate whether higher- and lower-fit 9- and 10-year-old children showed differences in hippocampal volume and if the differences were related to performance on an item and relational memory task. Relational but not item memory is primarily supported by the hippocampus. Consistent with predictions, higher-fit children showed greater bilateral hippocampal volumes and superior relational memory task performance compared to lower-fit children. Hippocampal volume was also positively associated with performance on the relational but not the item memory task. Furthermore, bilateral hippocampal volume was found to mediate the relationship between fitness level (VO(2) max) and relational memory. No relationship between aerobic fitness, nucleus accumbens volume, and memory was reported, which strengthens the hypothesized specific effect of fitness on the hippocampus. The findings are the first to indicate that aerobic fitness may relate to the structure and function of the preadolescent human brain. Copyright © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Front Psychol
                Front Psychol
                Front. Psychol.
                Frontiers in Psychology
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                1664-1078
                12 February 2019
                2019
                : 10
                : 208
                Affiliations
                [1] 1Center for Cognitive and Brain Health, Department of Psychology, Northeastern University , Boston, MA, United States
                [2] 2PROFITH “PROmoting FITness and Health through Physical Activity” Research Group, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada , Granada, Spain
                [3] 3Department of Experimental Psychology, Mind, Brain and Behavior Research Center (CIMCYC), University of Granada , Granada, Spain
                [4] 4Beckman Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , Urbana, IL, United States
                [5] 5Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, PA, United States
                [6] 6Brain Aging and Cognitive Health Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh, PA, United States
                [7] 7Department of Physical Therapy, Movement, and Rehabilitation Sciences, Northeastern University , Boston, MA, United States
                Author notes

                Edited by: Bruna Velasques, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

                Reviewed by: Erwin Lemche, King’s College London, United Kingdom; Mónica López-Vicente, Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Spain

                *Correspondence: Irene Esteban-Cornejo, ireneesteban@ 123456ugr.es

                Shared last authorship

                This article was submitted to Movement Science and Sport Psychology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology

                Article
                10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00208
                6379335
                30809168
                dcbb779d-f8db-4afd-bdee-9f5b824e85a5
                Copyright © 2019 Esteban-Cornejo, Rodriguez-Ayllon, Verdejo-Roman, Cadenas-Sanchez, Mora-Gonzalez, Chaddock-Heyman, Raine, Stillman, Kramer, Erickson, Catena, Ortega and Hillman.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 31 July 2018
                : 21 January 2019
                Page count
                Figures: 1, Tables: 3, Equations: 0, References: 59, Pages: 13, Words: 0
                Categories
                Psychology
                Original Research

                Clinical Psychology & Psychiatry
                aerobic capacity,motor ability,speed-agility,muscular strength,brain structure,academic achievement,obesity,childhood

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