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      Trait‐based species richness: ecology and macroevolution

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      Biological Reviews
      Wiley

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          ABSTRACT

          Understanding the origins of species richness patterns is a fundamental goal in ecology and evolutionary biology. Much research has focused on explaining two kinds of species richness patterns: ( i) spatial species richness patterns (e.g. the latitudinal diversity gradient), and ( ii) clade‐based species richness patterns (e.g. the predominance of angiosperm species among plants). Here, I highlight a third kind of richness pattern: trait‐based species richness (e.g. the number of species with each state of a character, such as diet or body size). Trait‐based richness patterns are relevant to many topics in ecology and evolution, from ecosystem function to adaptive radiation to the paradox of sex. Although many studies have described particular trait‐based richness patterns, the origins of these patterns remain far less understood, and trait‐based richness has not been emphasised as a general category of richness patterns. Here, I describe a conceptual framework for how trait‐based richness patterns arise compared to other richness patterns. A systematic review suggests that trait‐based richness patterns are most often explained by when each state originates within a group (i.e. older states generally have higher richness), and not by differences in transition rates among states or faster diversification of species with certain states. This latter result contrasts with the widespread emphasis on diversification rates in species‐richness research. I show that many recent studies of spatial richness patterns are actually studies of trait‐based richness patterns, potentially confounding the causes of these patterns. Finally, I describe a plethora of unanswered questions related to trait‐based richness patterns.

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          The global diversity of birds in space and time.

          Current global patterns of biodiversity result from processes that operate over both space and time and thus require an integrated macroecological and macroevolutionary perspective. Molecular time trees have advanced our understanding of the tempo and mode of diversification and have identified remarkable adaptive radiations across the tree of life. However, incomplete joint phylogenetic and geographic sampling has limited broad-scale inference. Thus, the relative prevalence of rapid radiations and the importance of their geographic settings in shaping global biodiversity patterns remain unclear. Here we present, analyse and map the first complete dated phylogeny of all 9,993 extant species of birds, a widely studied group showing many unique adaptations. We find that birds have undergone a strong increase in diversification rate from about 50 million years ago to the near present. This acceleration is due to a number of significant rate increases, both within songbirds and within other young and mostly temperate radiations including the waterfowl, gulls and woodpeckers. Importantly, species characterized with very high past diversification rates are interspersed throughout the avian tree and across geographic space. Geographically, the major differences in diversification rates are hemispheric rather than latitudinal, with bird assemblages in Asia, North America and southern South America containing a disproportionate number of species from recent rapid radiations. The contribution of rapidly radiating lineages to both temporal diversification dynamics and spatial distributions of species diversity illustrates the benefits of an inclusive geographical and taxonomical perspective. Overall, whereas constituent clades may exhibit slowdowns, the adaptive zone into which modern birds have diversified since the Cretaceous may still offer opportunities for diversification.
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            EFFECTS OF BIODIVERSITY ON ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONING: A CONSENSUS OF CURRENT KNOWLEDGE

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              Community diversity: relative roles of local and regional processes.

              The species richness (diversity) of local plant and animal assemblages-biological communities-balances regional processes of species formation and geographic dispersal, which add species to communities, against processes of predation, competitive exclusion, adaptation, and stochastic variation, which may promote local extinction. During the past three decades, ecologists have sought to explain differences in local diversity by the influence of the physical environment on local interactions among species, interactions that are generally believed to limit the number of coexisting species. But diversity of the biological community often fails to converge under similar physical conditions, and local diversity bears a demonstrable dependence upon regional diversity. These observations suggest that regional and historical processes, as well as unique events and circumstances, profoundly influence local community structure. Ecologists must broaden their concepts of community processes and incorporate data from systematics, biogeography, and paleontology into analyses of ecological patterns and tests of community theory.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                (View ORCID Profile)
                Journal
                Biological Reviews
                Biological Reviews
                Wiley
                1464-7931
                1469-185X
                August 2023
                April 04 2023
                August 2023
                : 98
                : 4
                : 1365-1387
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology University of Arizona Tucson AZ 85721‐0088 USA
                Article
                10.1111/brv.12957
                37015839
                46a1e826-023e-4ccb-9885-cf4cd37cb088
                © 2023

                http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor

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