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      A new perspective on the evolution of “Kawara” roof tiles in Ryukyu: A multidisciplinary non-destructive analysis of roof tile transition at Shuri Castle, Ryukyu Islands, Japan

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          Abstract

          A unique historical architecture was created at Shuri Castle ( Shuri-jo) in the Ryukyu Islands by its “Kawara” roof tiles. After the 13th and 14th centuries, Kawara tiles were introduced to the Ryukyu Islands from several regions, including China, Korea, and mainland Japan, and evolved shapes and patterns that are unique to this island region. However, the transition of some internal features, such as the chemical components and microstructure, had not been analyzed. This study used a multi-faceted approach for such internal data and non-destructive quantitative methods to propose a new perspective on the evolution of historical Ryukyuan Kawara. We analyzed two styles of Ryukyuan Kawara from the 13th to 15th centuries and found that the material processing and firing conditions of the two styles were very similar, even though it had been suggested that they had different origins. A quantitative analysis of tiles from the 16th to 19th centuries revealed a transition in color tone to red, leading to the modern traditional Ryukyuan tiles; traces of changes in firing conditions were also found along with this transition. Finally, the study revealed that the evolution of Ryukyuan Kawara consisted of changed factors, e.g. surface color, and unchanged factors, e.g. paste density. Previous archaeological studies mainly focused on changing external characteristics, such as form and pattern; however, our analysis showed that the internal features changed, while the elemental composition and paste density remained constant from the appearance of the roof tiles until the 19th century. We propose that this is related to different responses of individual factors to external stressors, such as the social context, which may be common to other archaeological artifacts as well. Our study provides a new perspective on the evolution of Ryukyuan Kawara and presents a different discussion of and methods for the chronological study of material culture.

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          This study describes and validates a new method for metagenomic biomarker discovery by way of class comparison, tests of biological consistency and effect size estimation. This addresses the challenge of finding organisms, genes, or pathways that consistently explain the differences between two or more microbial communities, which is a central problem to the study of metagenomics. We extensively validate our method on several microbiomes and a convenient online interface for the method is provided at http://huttenhower.sph.harvard.edu/lefse/.
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            Style and Function: A Fundamental Dichotomy

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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draft
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS One
                plos
                PLOS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                16 November 2022
                2022
                : 17
                : 11
                : e0277560
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Research Planning Office, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan
                [2 ] Research Facility Center, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan
                [3 ] Research Fellow of the Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science, Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan
                [4 ] Research Institute for Islands and Sustainability, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan
                [5 ] Center for Strategic Research Project, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan
                [6 ] Center for Research Advancement and Collaboration, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan
                Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9005-5341
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5430-3213
                Article
                PONE-D-22-12204
                10.1371/journal.pone.0277560
                9668144
                36383616
                24017bf2-f8f9-4c66-8b18-6ae26f100659
                © 2022 Aoyama et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 26 April 2022
                : 30 October 2022
                Page count
                Figures: 6, Tables: 0, Pages: 18
                Funding
                Funded by: the Shuri-jo Revival Research Project of the University of the Ryukyus
                This research was funded by a grant from the Shuri-jo Revival Research Project of the University of the Ryukyus. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Earth Sciences
                Geomorphology
                Topography
                Landforms
                Islands
                Physical Sciences
                Materials Science
                Materials Physics
                Microstructure
                Physical Sciences
                Physics
                Materials Physics
                Microstructure
                People and Places
                Geographical Locations
                Asia
                Japan
                Physical Sciences
                Mathematics
                Geometry
                Ellipses
                Physical Sciences
                Chemistry
                Chemical Elements
                Physical Sciences
                Chemistry
                Chemical Elements
                Sulfur
                Research and Analysis Methods
                Imaging Techniques
                Neuroimaging
                Computed Axial Tomography
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Neuroscience
                Neuroimaging
                Computed Axial Tomography
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Diagnostic Medicine
                Diagnostic Radiology
                Tomography
                Computed Axial Tomography
                Research and Analysis Methods
                Imaging Techniques
                Diagnostic Radiology
                Tomography
                Computed Axial Tomography
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Radiology and Imaging
                Diagnostic Radiology
                Tomography
                Computed Axial Tomography
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Developmental Biology
                Evolutionary Developmental Biology
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Evolutionary Biology
                Evolutionary Developmental Biology
                Custom metadata
                All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.

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